Browse more peptide research, methods and limitations.
NT-proBNP was the strongest predictor of progressive heart failure death, while endothelin-1 and norepinephrine better predicted sudden cardiac death — different neurohormones predict different death modes, enabling targeted prevention strategies (ICD vs medical intensification).
Berger, R; Huelsmann, M; Strecker, K; Moertl, D; Moser, P; Bojic, A; Pacher, R · Cohort
Local BPC-157 application accelerated CO2 laser wound healing in mice with faster re-epithelialization and wound contraction, extending BPC-157's documented wound healing to laser-induced tissue damage relevant to surgical and cosmetic dermatology.
Bilic, M; Bumber, Z; Blagaic, A Boban; Batelja, L; Seiwerth, S; Sikiric, P · Animal Study
Post-prandial gut hormones (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, oxyntomodulin) signal satiety through vagal and bloodstream pathways to brainstem/hypothalamic circuits, with combination peptide mimicry showing greater satiety than single agents — the future of appetite pharmacology.
Bloom, Steve; Wynne, Katie; Chaudhri, Owais · Review
BPC-157 effectively counteracted serotonin syndrome signs (hyperthermia, tremor, rigidity, agitation) induced by multiple serotonergic drugs in rats, demonstrating serotonergic system modulation complementing its known dopaminergic and GABAergic interactions.
Boban Blagaic, Alenka; Blagaic, Vladimir; Mirt, Mirela; Jelovac, Nikola; Dodig, Goran; Rucman, Rudolf; Petek, Marijan; Turkovic, Branko; Anic, Tomislav; Dubovecak, Miroslav; Staresinic, Mario; Seiwerth, Sven; Sikiric, Predrag · Animal Study
Osteoblasts cultured on self-assembling peptide hydrogel-polyHIPE polymer hybrid scaffolds demonstrated enhanced proliferation, differentiation, and mineralization compared to control materials, validating peptide-based biomaterials for bone tissue engineering.
Bokhari, Maria A; Akay, Galip; Zhang, Shuguang; Birch, Mark A · In Vitro
Combined CCK and GLP-1 infusion produced additive effects on appetite suppression and antropyloroduodenal motility in healthy humans — supporting combination gut peptide therapy for superior satiety and weight management.
Brennan, Ixchel M; Feltrin, Kate L; Horowitz, Michael; Smout, Andre J P M; Meyer, James H; Wishart, Judith; Feinle-Bisset, Christine · RCT
Antimicrobial peptides kill bacteria through more mechanisms than just punching holes in membranes. While three classic pore-forming models exist — 'barrel-stave,' 'carpet,' and 'toroidal-pore' — growing evidence shows that many peptides can also cross into bacterial cells and inhibit internal processes including cell wall synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis, enzymatic activity, and membrane septum formation during cell division.
Brogden, Kim A ·
CRF/urocortin system activation drives the stress/withdrawal component of cannabis, nicotine, and alcohol dependence through CRF1-mediated anxiety during abstinence, creating a negative reinforcement cycle that maintains substance use.
Bruijnzeel, Adrie W; Gold, Mark S · Review
Hexarelin reduced neonatal brain injury in a hypoxia-ischemia model and altered Akt/GSK-3β phosphorylation — activating pro-survival signaling cascades for direct GH-independent neuroprotection in the developing brain.
Brywe, Katarina G; Leverin, Anna-Lena; Gustavsson, Malin; Mallard, Carina; Granata, Riccarda; Destefanis, Silvia; Volante, Marco; Hagberg, Henrik; Ghigo, Ezio; Isgaard, Jörgen · Animal Study
Morphine modified proopiomelanocortin and prodynorphin system activity in immune cells during zymosan-induced peritonitis, demonstrating that exogenous opioid drugs alter the endogenous opioid-immune pain control system at inflammation sites.
Chadzinska, M; Starowicz, K; Scislowska-Czarnecka, A; Bilecki, W; Pierzchala-Koziec, K; Przewlocki, R; Przewlocka, B; Plytycz, B · Animal Study
Recombinant thymosin alpha-1 produced in Pichia pastoris yeast expression system showed biological activity equivalent to chemically synthesized peptide, establishing a cost-effective, scalable manufacturing platform for clinical-grade thymosin alpha-1.
Chen, Feng; Chen, Xiang-Ming; Chen, Zhi; Jiang, Han-Liang; Pan, Xiao-Ping; Hu, Zhong-Rong; Liu, Rong-Hua; Chen, Xiao-Ming · In Vitro
Oral thymosin alpha-1 enhanced T-cell function, NK cell activity, and cytokine production in mice, demonstrating that the peptide retains immunomodulatory activity after oral administration — a practical advance for non-injectable immune therapy.
Chen, Xiang-Ming; Jiang, Han-Liang; Zhou, Lin-Fu; Pan, Xiao-Ping; Hu, Zhong-Rong; Liu, Rong-Hua; Chen, Xiao-Ming; Chen, Zhi · Animal Study
GH-releasing peptides affect bone metabolism through both indirect GH/IGF-1 stimulation and direct ghrelin receptor activation on osteoblasts, promoting bone formation through dual systemic and local mechanisms for potential osteoporosis therapy.
Cocchi, D; Maccarinelli, G; Sibilia, V; Tulipano, G; Torsello, A; Pazzaglia, U E; Giustina, A; Netti, C · Review
Patients with acquired structural hypothalamic damage-induced obesity had elevated ghrelin and reduced PYY3-36 compared to matched controls, suggesting specific gut peptide dysregulation contributes to hypothalamic obesity beyond central appetite circuit damage.
Daousi, Christina; MacFarlane, Ian A; English, Patrick J; Wilding, John P H; Patterson, Michael; Dovey, Terence M; Halford, Jason C G; Ghatei, Mohammad A; Pinkney, Jonathan H · Cross Sectional
A stochastic computational approach (extended MARCH-INSIDE) accurately predicted antimicrobial activity of lactoferrin-derived and other peptides based on sequence descriptors, validating computational methods for rational antimicrobial peptide design.
de Armas, Ronal Ramos; Díaz, Humberto González; Molina, Reinaldo; Uriarte, Eugenio · In Vitro
Ghrelin and GHRP-6 stimulated gastric motility in rats through both GHS-R and motilin receptor cross-activation, with efficacy comparable to motilin — confirming the bidirectional receptor overlap drives GH secretagogue gut motility effects.
Depoortere, Inge; De Winter, Benedicte; Thijs, Theo; De Man, Joris; Pelckmans, Paul; Peeters, Theo · Animal Study
Morbidly obese patients had delayed gastric emptying, impaired gallbladder contraction, yet elevated CCK and PYY3-36 levels — a paradox suggesting gut satiety signal resistance in obesity, analogous to leptin resistance.
Di Francesco, Vincenzo; Zamboni, Mauro; Dioli, Andrea; Zoico, Elena; Mazzali, Gloria; Omizzolo, Francesca; Bissoli, Luisa; Solerte, Sebastiano B; Benini, Luigi; Bosello, Ottavio · Cross Sectional
Co-administration of low-dose intranasal PT-141 (melanocortin agonist) with sildenafil (PDE5 inhibitor) produced synergistic erectile responses in ED patients — combining central desire/arousal with peripheral vasodilation for superior outcomes.
Diamond, L E; Earle, D C; Garcia, W D; Spana, C · RCT
Ghrelin demonstrates comprehensive immunomodulatory activity: anti-inflammatory cytokine suppression, thymic output enhancement, immune cell function promotion, and potential reversal of age-related immune decline (immunosenescence).
Dixit, Vishwa Deep; Taub, Dennis D · Review
Both CCK-8 and CCK-33 reduced food intake through hepatic branch vagal afferents in rats, but CCK-33 produced more sustained satiety — demonstrating shared pathway with temporal differences between CCK molecular forms.
Eisen, S; Phillips, R J; Geary, N; Baronowsky, E A; Powley, T L; Smith, G P · Animal Study
Palatable food disrupts appetite regulation through opioid reward pathway overactivation (hedonic eating), blunted satiety peptide responses (GLP-1, PYY, CCK), and altered ghrelin dynamics — creating a multi-level biological mechanism for food addiction and overconsumption.
Erlanson-Albertsson, Charlotte · Review
Lactitol colonic fermentation increased circulating PYY and GLP-1 in rats and humans, establishing that short-chain fatty acid production from dietary fiber fermentation stimulates L-cell satiety peptide secretion — a prebiotic mechanism for appetite regulation.
Gee, Jennifer M; Johnson, Ian T · Clinical Trial
Ghrelin's validated roles now span GH release, appetite, cardiovascular protection, anti-inflammatory immune modulation, reproductive function, pancreatic regulation, and bone metabolism — establishing it as one of the body's most versatile peptide hormones.
Ghigo, E; Broglio, F; Arvat, E; Maccario, M; Papotti, M; Muccioli, G · Review
Lactoferricin demonstrates comprehensive bioactivities: antibacterial (gram+ and gram-), antifungal, antiviral (HSV, HIV, CMV), antiparasitic, antitumor (direct cytotoxicity), and immunomodulatory — the most versatile natural antimicrobial peptide characterized.
Gifford, J L; Hunter, H N; Vogel, H J · Review
GHRP-2 reduced clinical arthritis scores, joint inflammation, and cartilage destruction in adjuvant-arthritic rats, suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6) — establishing GH secretagogues as anti-inflammatory agents for arthritis treatment.
Granado, Miriam; Priego, Teresa; Martín, Ana I; Villanúa, M Angeles; López-Calderón, Asunción · Animal Study
CRF family peptides (CRF, urocortin 1-3) modulate peripheral inflammation through CRF1 (generally pro-inflammatory) and CRF2 (generally anti-inflammatory) receptors on immune cells, gut, and skin — with therapeutic applications for IBD, arthritis, and dermatitis.
Gravanis, Achille; Margioris, Andrew N · Review
Soluble GP130 (IL-6 trans-signaling marker) and NT-proBNP both predicted heart failure progression over 2+ years but reflected different pathophysiology: GP130 = inflammatory deterioration; BNP = hemodynamic stress — complementary long-term prognostic markers.
Gwechenberger, Marianne; Pacher, Richard; Berger, Rudolf; Zorn, Gerlinde; Moser, Petra; Stanek, Brigitte; Huelsmann, Martin · Cohort
Melanotan II, a synthetic melanocortin analog originally studied for skin tanning, was found to enhance erectile function in men and increase sexual desire and genital arousal in women. The peptide's mechanism of action is fundamentally different from PDE5 inhibitors like Viagra — it works centrally through melanocortin receptors in the brain rather than peripherally on blood vessels, producing what the author characterizes as a more natural sexual response with minimal side effects. The sexual effects were discovered accidentally during human skin pigmentation studies, representing a classic example of serendipity in drug discovery.
Hadley, Mac E ·
Peripheral PYY3-36 at appetite-suppressing doses produced conditioned taste aversion (learned food avoidance suggesting nausea), indicating its anorectic effect may partly involve malaise rather than pure satiety — an important consideration for PYY-based obesity drugs.
Halatchev, Ilia G; Cone, Roger D · Animal Study
A novel GHS-R1a antagonist blocked ghrelin-induced GH release but paradoxically increased food intake, suggesting inverse agonism or biased antagonism at the constitutively active receptor — complex pharmacology where blocking one ghrelin function doesn't block another.
Halem, Heather A; Taylor, John E; Dong, Jesse Z; Shen, Yeelana; Datta, Rakesh; Abizaid, Alfonso; Diano, Sabrina; Horvath, Tamas L; Culler, Michael D · Animal Study
The endogenous opioid system (endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins) provides the biological foundation for clinical pain management: understanding endogenous analgesia mechanisms improves opioid drug selection, dosing, and integration with non-pharmacological approaches.
Holden, Janean E; Jeong, Younhee; Forrest, Jeannine M · Review
MK-677, hexarelin, and other GH secretagogues demonstrated both direct GHS-R agonism and allosteric modulation of ghrelin binding — some enhancing (positive) and others reducing (negative) ghrelin's own receptor interaction, revealing complex biased pharmacology.
Holst, Birgitte; Brandt, Erik; Bach, Anders; Heding, Anders; Schwartz, Thue W · In Vitro
NMR studies showed human lactoferricin adopts a partially structured conformation in water that stabilizes into an amphipathic beta-hairpin at membrane-mimetic surfaces, revealing that the bacterial membrane itself activates the peptide's antimicrobial structure.
Hunter, Howard N; Demcoe, A Ross; Jenssen, Håvard; Gutteberg, Tore J; Vogel, Hans J · In Vitro
Mice lacking the cathelicidin gene (Cnlp-/-) were dramatically more vulnerable to intestinal infection than normal mice. When infected with Citrobacter rodentium — a pathogen that mimics dangerous human E. coli strains — cathelicidin-deficient mice developed significantly greater colon colonization, epithelial cell damage, and systemic spread of infection. Normal mice were protected from infection doses that reliably infected the knockout mice. The study also showed that cathelicidin (mCRAMP) expression in the gut is concentrated in the colon's surface epithelial cells, and that colon cell extracts from normal mice killed C. rodentium significantly better than extracts from cathelicidin-deficient mice.
Iimura, Mitsutoshi; Gallo, Richard L; Hase, Koji; Miyamoto, Yukiko; Eckmann, Lars; Kagnoff, Martin F · Animal Study
Thymosin alpha-1 showed safety and efficacy (HBeAg seroconversion, HBV DNA reduction) in Japanese chronic hepatitis B patients in a randomized controlled trial, validating immunotherapy-based HBV treatment in the high-prevalence Asian population.
Iino, S; Toyota, J; Kumada, H; Kiyosawa, K; Kakumu, S; Sata, M; Suzuki, H; Martins, E B · RCT
Lactoferrin/lactoferricin anti-HSV activity operates through blocking viral attachment to cell surface heparan sulfate and potentially interfering with early infection events — applicable to both HSV-1 and HSV-2 with topical prevention implications.
Jenssen, H · Review
QSAR modeling using amino acid descriptors predicted anti-HSV activity of lactoferricin analogs, identifying structural features correlated with antiviral potency and enabling computational design of optimized anti-herpes peptides.
Jenssen, Håvard; Gutteberg, Tore J; Lejon, Tore · In Vitro
Peripheral endogenous opioid analgesia from immune cell-released peptides at inflammation sites provides clinically significant pain control through peripheral opioid receptors, exploitable with intra-articular, topical, and peripherally-restricted opioid drugs without CNS side effects.
Kapitzke, Daniel; Vetter, Irina; Cabot, Peter J · Review
Intranasal oxytocin attenuated amygdala reactivity to threatening facial expressions measured by fMRI in healthy humans, providing the first neural imaging evidence for oxytocin's anxiolytic mechanism through direct fear-circuit modulation.
Kirsch, Peter; Esslinger, Christine; Chen, Qiang; Mier, Daniela; Lis, Stefanie; Siddhanti, Sarina; Gruppe, Harald; Mattay, Venkata S; Gallhofer, Bernd; Meyer-Lindenberg, Andreas · RCT
Both peptide (ghrelin, GHRP-6) and non-peptide GH secretagogues stimulated gastric contractions in mice in vivo and in vitro, with peptide agonists producing stronger gastroprokinetic effects — gut motility stimulation is a class effect of GHS.
Kitazawa, T; De Smet, B; Verbeke, K; Depoortere, I; Peeters, T L · Animal Study
Bulimia nervosa patients demonstrated blunted post-meal ghrelin suppression and altered PYY3-36 response compared to healthy controls, indicating disrupted gut peptide satiety signaling that may perpetuate the binge-purge cycle.
Kojima, Shinya; Nakahara, Toshihiro; Nagai, Nobuatsu; Muranaga, Tetsuro; Tanaka, Muneki; Yasuhara, Daisuke; Masuda, Akinori; Date, Yukari; Ueno, Hiroaki; Nakazato, Masamitsu; Naruo, Tetsuro · Clinical Trial
Intranasal oxytocin caused a substantial increase in trust behavior during a trust game, where participants had to decide how much money to entrust to an anonymous partner who could either reciprocate or keep it all. Critically, the study demonstrated that oxytocin's effect was specific to social trust — it increased willingness to accept risks arising from interpersonal interactions, but did not increase general risk tolerance. This distinction suggests oxytocin targets the neural circuits involved in social approach behavior rather than simply reducing fear or caution across the board.
Kosfeld, Michael; Heinrichs, Markus; Zak, Paul J; Fischbacher, Urs; Fehr, Ernst ·
IV GHRP-2 increased food intake by ~35% and hunger VAS scores in healthy men in a controlled study, directly confirming the appetite-stimulating effect of GH secretagogues in humans alongside potent GH/cortisol release.
Laferrère, Blandine; Abraham, Cynthia; Russell, Colleen D; Bowers, Cyril Y · Clinical Trial
Ghrelin changes in various disease states (cardiovascular, inflammatory, GI, metabolic) likely represent active physiological responses with functional consequences, not passive biomarker changes — supporting therapeutic ghrelin modulation in disease.
Lago, Francisca; Gonzalez-Juanatey, José Ramón; Casanueva, Felipe F; Gómez-Reino, Juan; Dieguez, Carlos; Gualillo, Oreste · Review
BPC-157 accelerated corneal epithelial defect healing in rats with faster re-epithelialization compared to controls, extending its documented tissue repair capabilities to the eye — a new organ system for BPC-157 therapeutic application.
Lazić, Ratimir; Gabrić, Nikica; Dekaris, Iva; Bosnar, Damir; Boban-Blagaić, Alenka; Sikirić, Predrag · Animal Study
DMP696 and DMP904 demonstrated CRF1 receptor antagonist anxiolytic activity with distinct pharmacokinetic, selectivity, and efficacy profiles across anxiety models — advancing multiple CRF1 drug candidates with different clinical potential.
Li, Yu-Wen; Fitzgerald, Lawrence; Wong, Harvey; Lelas, Snjezana; Zhang, Ge; Lindner, Mark D; Wallace, Tanya; McElroy, John; Lodge, Nicholas J; Gilligan, Paul; Zaczek, Robert · Review
Lactoferricin B selectively induced apoptosis of Listeria monocytogenes-infected macrophages while sparing uninfected cells, eliminating the intracellular bacterial reservoir — a selective anti-infection strategy targeting infected immune cells.
Longhi, C; Conte, M P; Ranaldi, S; Penta, M; Valenti, P; Tinari, A; Superti, F; Seganti, L · In Vitro
Bovine lactoferricin induced apoptosis selectively in human leukemia (Jurkat, CEM) and carcinoma (MDA-MB-435) cell lines while sparing normal lymphocytes and fibroblasts — demonstrating cancer-selective cytotoxicity through membrane-dependent mechanisms.
Mader, Jamie S; Salsman, Jayme; Conrad, David M; Hoskin, David W · In Vitro
Plasma urotensin II inversely correlated with muscle sympathetic nerve activity and cardiac natriuretic peptides in ESRD patients, suggesting urotensin II serves a counter-regulatory role in the sympathetic-peptide axis in cardiorenal disease.
Mallamaci, Francesca; Cutrupi, Sebastiano; Pizzini, Patrizia; Tripepi, Giovanni; Zoccali, Carmine · Cross Sectional
Milk-derived peptides VPP and IPP — natural ACE inhibitors from casein — lowered systolic blood pressure in a dose-dependent manner over 6 weeks. The highest dose (3.6 mg VPP+IPP daily) produced a 10.1 mmHg decrease in systolic blood pressure, significantly better than placebo (p<0.001). Even the lowest active dose (1.8 mg) produced a significant 6.3 mmHg reduction at 6 weeks. The blood pressure changes were: placebo −1.7 mmHg, 1.8 mg −6.3 mmHg, 2.5 mg −6.7 mmHg, and 3.6 mg −10.1 mmHg. The effect was stronger in mildly hypertensive subjects. Diastolic blood pressure was not significantly affected.
Mizuno, Seiichi; Matsuura, Keiichi; Gotou, Takanobu; Nishimura, Shingo; Kajimoto, Osami; Yabune, Mitsuharu; Kajimoto, Yoshitaka; Yamamoto, Naoyuki · Randomized Controlled Trial (Single Blind)