Browse more peptide research, methods and limitations.
ICV beta-endorphin decreased blood pressure in lean rats but increased it in diet-induced obese rats, with enhanced sympathetic activation and reduced vagal tone — demonstrating a fundamental opioid-cardiovascular control reversal in obesity.
Barnes, Maria J; Jen, K-L Catherine; Dunbar, Joseph C · Animal Study
Intestinal fat is the most potent CCK-releasing macronutrient, with CCK mediating fat-induced satiety through vagal afferent and brain pathways — the primary mechanism for the high satiating power of dietary fat.
Beglinger, Christoph; Degen, Lukas · Review
BPC-157 protected against acute ethanol toxicity (reduced mortality, behavioral impairment, gastric damage) and chronic alcohol effects (reduced intake, liver protection), demonstrating comprehensive anti-alcohol therapeutic potential.
Blagaic, Alenka Boban; Blagaic, Vladimir; Romic, Zeljko; Sikiric, Predrag · Animal Study
Combined SC GHRP-2 + GHRH infusion sustainably elevated pulsatile GH, IGF-1, and IGFBP-3 in healthy older adults without desensitization, with synergy exceeding individual effects and women showing greater response than men.
Bowers, Cyril Y; Granda, Ramona; Mohan, Subburaman; Kuipers, Jonathan; Baylink, David; Veldhuis, Johannes D · Clinical Trial
Adrenomedullin has clinical relevance as both a biomarker (predicting outcomes in sepsis, HF, ACS) and a potential therapeutic (improving hemodynamics, protecting kidneys, reducing inflammation) — a dual biomarker-therapy peptide.
Bunton, David C; Petrie, Mark C; Hillier, Chris; Johnston, Fiona; McMurray, John J V · Review
Adrenomedullin serves as an endogenous cardiovascular protector through vasodilation, cardiac output enhancement, natriuresis, and direct cardioprotection via CRLR/RAMP receptor complexes — a comprehensive cardiovascular defense peptide.
Cheung, Bernard M Y; Li, Carol Y Y; Wong, Louisa Y F · Review
Thymalfasin achieved 25-40% sustained virological response in chronic HBV with response rates increasing over follow-up (unlike interferon relapse), superior safety profile, and durable immune-mediated viral control.
Chien, Rong-Nan; Liaw, Yun-Fan · Review
Ghrelin inhibited FGF-2-mediated angiogenesis: reduced endothelial cell proliferation, migration, tube formation in vitro, and new vessel formation in vivo — demonstrating anti-angiogenic rather than pro-angiogenic activity.
Conconi, Maria Teresa; Nico, Beatrice; Guidolin, Diego; Baiguera, Silvia; Spinazzi, Raffaella; Rebuffat, Piera; Malendowicz, Ludwik K; Vacca, Angelo; Carraro, Gianni; Parnigotto, Pier Paolo; Nussdorfer, Gastone G; Ribatti, Domenico · In Vitro
BNP, ANP, and N-terminal ANP showed characteristic perioperative release patterns during infant cardiac surgery, with BNP best correlating with surgical cardiac stress — supporting neonatal/infant cardiac biomarker monitoring.
Costello, J M; Backer, C L; Checchia, P A; Mavroudis, C; Seipelt, R G; Goodman, D M · Cohort
CCK and GLP-1 are the most validated satiety biomarkers correlating with both subjective appetite ratings and actual food intake, with PYY, ghrelin, insulin, and glucose providing complementary information in multi-marker panels.
de Graaf, Cees; Blom, Wendy A M; Smeets, Paul A M; Stafleu, Annette; Hendriks, Henk F J · Review
Bovine lactoferricin dose-dependently reduced Yersinia adhesion to and invasion of HEp-2 cells even at sub-bactericidal concentrations, demonstrating anti-virulence activity complementing its bactericidal effects.
Di Biase, Assunta Maria; Tinari, Antonella; Pietrantoni, Agostina; Antonini, Giovanni; Valenti, Piera; Conte, Maria Pia; Superti, Fabiana · In Vitro
Intranasal PT-141 induced dose-dependent erectile responses in both healthy men and Viagra-responsive ED patients in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, with rapid onset and acceptable safety — validating intranasal melanocortin ED therapy.
Diamond, L E; Earle, D C; Rosen, R C; Willett, M S; Molinoff, P B · RCT
Ghrelin inhibited leptin-induced and activation-induced IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α production in human monocytes and T-cells through functional GHS-R on immune cells, establishing an anti-inflammatory role that opposes leptin's pro-inflammatory effects.
Dixit, Vishwa Deep; Schaffer, Eric M; Pyle, Robert S; Collins, Gary D; Sakthivel, Senthil K; Palaniappan, Ravichandran; Lillard, James W; Taub, Dennis D · Animal Study
GHRP-2 (KP-102/pralmorelin) demonstrates potent GH-releasing activity through dual hypothalamic-pituitary mechanisms, with characterized appetite, cardiovascular, and diagnostic applications — a comprehensive pharmacological profile.
Doi, Naomi; Hirotani, Chiharu; Ukai, Kiyoharu; Shimada, Osafumi; Okuno, Tadashi; Kurasaki, Shigeru; Kiyofuji, Takeshi; Ikegami, Reiko; Futamata, Machiko; Nakagawa, Terutake; Ase, Katsuhiko; Chihara, Kazuo · Animal Study
At least 8 gut/pancreatic hormones regulate satiety, with GLP-1, PYY, and amylin identified as the most promising therapeutic targets for obesity — with combination therapy suggested for superior outcomes.
Druce, Maralyn R; Small, Caroline J; Bloom, Stephen R · Review
KPV inhibited NF-κB inflammatory signaling in human keratinocytes through a cAMP-independent mechanism, distinct from full-length alpha-MSH's classical cAMP-dependent MC1R signaling.
Elliott, Richard J; Szabo, Marika; Wagner, Mark J; Kemp, E Helen; MacNeil, Sheila; Haycock, John W · In Vitro
Heart failure involves coordinated dysregulation across natriuretic peptides, catecholamines, endothelin, thyroid hormones, and inflammatory cytokines, with multi-marker profiling providing comprehensive characterization beyond any single biomarker.
Emdin, Michele; Passino, Claudio; Prontera, Concetta; Iervasi, Annalisa; Ripoli, Andrea; Masini, Silvano; Zucchelli, Gian Carlo; Clerico, Aldo · Cohort
Postmenopausal women, even with estradiol replacement, showed reduced fasting GH, IGF-1, and diminished dual-secretagogue GH burst response compared to premenopausal women — suggesting irreversible menopausal GH axis changes.
Erickson, Dana; Keenan, Daniel M; Mielke, Kristi; Bradford, Kandace; Bowers, Cyril Y; Miles, John M; Veldhuis, Johannes D · Clinical Trial
BNP outperformed ANP for heart failure diagnosis (higher sensitivity/specificity) and prognosis, with NT-proBNP showing particularly strong prognostic value for predicting adverse cardiac events in LV systolic dysfunction.
Falcão, Luiz Menezes; Pinto, Fausto; Ravara, Luciano; van Zwieten, Peter Adriaan · Review
Lactoferricin-derived peptides bound bacterial LPS and showed antimicrobial activity against E. coli including LPS mutant strains, with activity correlating with LPS binding — confirming membrane interaction as the killing mechanism.
Farnaud, Sebastien; Spiller, Claire; Moriarty, Laura C; Patel, Alpesh; Gant, Vanya; Odell, Edward W; Evans, Robert W · In Vitro
Bovine lactoferricin's superior antimicrobial activity versus human lactoferricin was explained by more complete amphipathic beta-sheet formation and denser cationic surface charge distribution, identified through 3D structural modeling.
Farnaud, Sebastien; Patel, Alpesh; Odell, Edward W; Evans, Robert W · In Vitro
Spinal cord stimulation in chronic critical limb ischemia patients increased CSF beta-endorphin levels, correlating with improved microvascular flow and wound healing — an endogenous opioid mechanism for SCS therapeutic effects.
Fontana, Fiorella; Bernardi, Pasquale; Lanfranchi, Giuseppina; Spampinato, Santi; Di Toro, Rosanna; Conti, Eleonora; Bonafè, Francesca; Coccheri, Sergio · Clinical Trial
Ghrelin's biological roles expanded to include immune modulation (anti-inflammatory), reproductive function, cancer cell growth regulation, and cardiovascular protection through GHS-R and non-GHS-R pathways.
Ghigo, E; Broglio, F; Me, E; Prodam, F; Ragazzoni, F · Review
Ghrelin's integrated control of appetite, adiposity, and GnRH/gonadotropin secretion links eating disorders, obesity, and reproductive dysfunction through a common hormonal mechanism.
Gottero, C; Broglio, F; Prodam, F; Destefanis, S; Bellone, S; Benso, A; Gauna, C; Arvat, E; van der Lely, A J; Ghigo, E · Review
Natriuretic peptide levels identified LV dysfunction and comorbidities in pacemaker patients, supporting BNP measurement for detecting subclinical heart failure in cardiac device populations.
Gwechenberger, M; Huelsmann, M; Graf, S; Berger, R; Bonderman, D; Stanek, B; Rauscha, F; Pacher, R · Cross Sectional
PYY3-36 inhibited food intake in MC4R knockout mice, demonstrating a melanocortin-4 receptor-independent satiety mechanism and establishing PYY as an independent appetite-suppressing pathway from the alpha-MSH system.
Halatchev, Ilia G; Ellacott, Kate L J; Fan, Wei; Cone, Roger D · Animal Study
Multiple novel ghrelin analogs were designed with improved pharmacokinetic properties (longer half-life, better stability) and selectivity profiles compared to native ghrelin, maintaining GH-releasing and appetite effects in animal models.
Halem, Heather A; Taylor, John E; Dong, Jesse Z; Shen, Yeelana; Datta, Rakesh; Abizaid, Alfonso; Diano, Sabrina; Horvath, Tamas; Zizzari, Philippe; Bluet-Pajot, Marie-Thèrèse; Epelbaum, Jacques; Culler, Michael D · Animal Study
Human appetite is regulated by a multi-level system including adiposity signals (leptin, insulin), gut peptides (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, ghrelin), and hypothalamic neuropeptides (NPY, AgRP, POMC), with GLP-1 and PYY identified as the most druggable targets.
Halford, Jason C G; Cooper, Gillian D; Dovey, Terence M · Review
Acupuncture and electroacupuncture produce analgesia through frequency-specific release of endogenous opioid peptides: low frequency releases endorphins/enkephalins (mu/delta) and high frequency releases dynorphins (kappa), confirmed across animal and human studies.
Han, Ji-Sheng · Review
Vagal stimulation amplified the inhibitory ghrelin response to oral fat in a human/animal model, demonstrating the vagus nerve acts as a gain controller for fat-induced ghrelin suppression — the gut-brain communication amplifying satiety.
Heath, R B; Jones, R; Frayn, K N; Robertson, M D · Animal Study
PT-141 intranasal demonstrated ED treatment efficacy in clinical trials through central melanocortin receptor activation, with development progressing toward potential approval as a first-in-class brain-acting sexual dysfunction therapy.
Hedlund, Petter · Review
Normal, obese, and binge-eating individuals show distinct patterns of appetite signal dysfunction across peripheral (gut peptides, adipokines) and central (hypothalamic neuropeptide) systems — disorder-specific signaling profiles enabling targeted treatment.
Hellström, Per M; Geliebter, Allan; Näslund, Erik; Schmidt, Peter T; Yahav, Eric K; Hashim, Sami A; Yeomans, Martin R · Review
Met- and leu-enkephalin immunoreactive neurons were distributed throughout social behavior brain nuclei (BNST, medial amygdala, MPOA, lateral septum, PAG) in male hamsters, providing an anatomical framework for opioid peptide regulation of social and reproductive behaviors.
Holt, Avril Genene; Newman, Sarah Winans · Animal Study
Ring size optimization of macrocyclic peptide deformylase inhibitors identified the most potent macrocycle dimensions, with X-ray crystallography confirming optimal binding geometry — advancing this bacteria-selective antibiotic mechanism.
Hu, Xubo; Nguyen, Kiet T; Jiang, Vernon C; Lofland, Denene; Moser, Heinz E; Pei, Dehua · In Vitro
Cardiomyocytes expressed ghrelin mRNA and protein, secreted ghrelin into culture medium, and expressed functional GHS-R — establishing an autocrine/paracrine cardiac ghrelin system for local cardiac regulation and protection.
Iglesias, María J; Piñeiro, Roberto; Blanco, Montserrat; Gallego, Rosalía; Diéguez, Carlos; Gualillo, Oreste; González-Juanatey, José R; Lago, Francisca · In Vitro
SST2/SST5 receptor activation differentially suppressed GHRH-stimulated and GHRP-2-stimulated GH secretion patterns in healthy men, with different effects on GH mass, frequency, and regularity — revealing receptor-specific modulation of the two GH-releasing pathways.
Iranmanesh, Ali; Bowers, Cyril Y; Veldhuis, Johannes D · Clinical Trial
Hypothalamic feeding circuits operate through electrophysiological excitation of NPY/AgRP neurons (hunger) and inhibition of POMC/CART neurons (satiety), with peripheral signals (ghrelin, leptin, insulin) directly modulating neuronal firing patterns.
Jobst, Erin E; Enriori, Pablo J; Cowley, Michael A · Review
Opioid peptides differentially modulated granulosa cell steroidogenesis: inhibiting progesterone while stimulating estradiol through kappa and mu receptor subtypes, revealing a complex opioid regulatory layer in ovarian hormone production.
Kaminski, T; Siawrys, C; Bogacka, I; Okrasa, S; Przala, J · In Vitro
Epithalon peptide treatment enabled human somatic cells to overcome the Hayflick division limit (normally ~50 divisions), extending replicative lifespan through telomerase activation and telomere maintenance.
Khavinson, V Kh; Bondarev, I E; Butyugov, A A; Smirnova, T D · In Vitro
Dynamic compressive loading of chondrocytes in self-assembling peptide scaffolds maintained or enhanced cartilage matrix (proteoglycan, collagen) production, demonstrating the scaffold's suitability for the mechanically demanding joint environment.
Kisiday, John D; Jin, Moonsoo; DiMicco, Michael A; Kurz, Bodo; Grodzinsky, Alan J · In Vitro
Food intake control operates through an integrated brain-gut axis where peripheral peptides (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, ghrelin, amylin) signal via vagal and hormonal routes to central circuits (NPY/AgRP, POMC/CART, CRF) for coordinated appetite regulation.
Konturek, S J; Konturek, J W; Pawlik, T; Brzozowski, T · Review
Ghrelin demonstrates validated multi-system functions: GH release, appetite/adiposity control, cardiovascular protection, immune modulation, gastric motility regulation, and reproductive function — through GHS-R and non-GHS-R pathways in virtually every organ system.
Korbonits, Márta; Goldstone, Anthony P; Gueorguiev, Maria; Grossman, Ashley B · Review
NPY receptor subtypes Y1-Y5 evolved through ancient gene duplications, with each acquiring distinct tissue distribution and functional specialization — Y1 for anxiety/vasoconstriction, Y2 for presynaptic inhibition, Y4 for PP binding, Y5 for feeding.
Larhammar, D; Salaneck, E · Review
Novel pentadecapeptides designed by computational prediction from lactoferricin's activity features demonstrated real antibacterial activity against test organisms, validating in-silico antimicrobial peptide design approaches.
Lejon, Tore; Stiberg, Trine; Strøm, Morten B; Svendsen, John S · In Vitro
Daily intranasal administration of Semax (an ACTH(4-10) analog peptide, sequence MEHFPGP) at 0.2 mg/kg reduced the severity of behavioral disturbances caused by the neurotoxin MPTP in rats. MPTP selectively destroys dopamine neurons — the same neurons lost in Parkinson's disease — causing decreased movement and increased anxiety. Semax treatment lessened both of these deficits. The researchers proposed two mechanisms for Semax's protective effects: direct modulation of the dopaminergic system and broader neurotrophic (nerve-supporting) activity of the peptide.
Levitskaya, N G; Sebentsova, E A; Andreeva, L A; Alfeeva, L Yu; Kamenskii, A A; Myasoedov, N F · Animal
Ghrelin inhibited TNF-α-induced VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and MCP-1 expression in human endothelial cells by blocking NF-κB nuclear translocation via IκBα preservation — a specific anti-inflammatory mechanism protecting blood vessels from atherosclerosis.
Li, Wei Gen; Gavrila, Dan; Liu, Xuebo; Wang, Lixing; Gunnlaugsson, Skuli; Stoll, Lynn L; McCormick, Michael L; Sigmund, Curt D; Tang, Chaosu; Weintraub, Neal L · In Vitro
Thymalfasin achieved sustained HBV virological response with increasing durability over follow-up and minimal side effects, positioning it as a well-tolerated immune-based alternative for chronic hepatitis B treatment.
Liaw, Yun-Fan · Review
Gastric ghrelin gene expression regulation and feeding response to ghrelin analog differed between lean (Fischer 344) and obesity-prone (Sprague-Dawley) rats, demonstrating genetic/strain variability in ghrelin biology.
Liu, Xiaotuan; York, David A; Bray, George A · Animal Study
Lactoferricin inhibited Listeria monocytogenes adhesion to and internalization by THP-1 human macrophages, reducing early infection events beyond direct bacterial killing — demonstrating anti-virulence protection.
Longhi, Catia; Conte, Maria P; Penta, Michela; Cossu, Alessia; Antonini, Giovanni; Superti, Fabiana; Seganti, Lucilla · In Vitro
BPC-157 reversed doxorubicin-induced CHF signs and normalized elevated Big Endothelin-1 levels in rats, comparable to amlodipine and losartan — demonstrating cardioprotective peptide activity against chemotherapy-induced cardiomyopathy.
Lovric-Bencic, Martina; Sikiric, Predrag; Hanzevacki, Jadranka S; Seiwerth, Sven; Rogic, Dunja; Kusec, Vesna; Aralica, Gorana; Konjevoda, Pasko; Batelja, Lovorka; Blagaic, Alenka B · Animal Study