CCK, GLP-1, PYY, ghrelin, insulin, and glucose are the most validated physiological biomarkers of satiation (stopping eating) and satiety (staying full), with CCK and GLP-1 showing the strongest evidence.
GLP-1 validatedGLP-1 was validated as a reliable satiety biomarker in humans — foreshadowing its later success as the target for obesity blockbuster drugs like Ozempic
What the researchers found
CCK and GLP-1 are the most validated satiety biomarkers correlating with both subjective appetite ratings and actual food intake, with PYY, ghrelin, insulin, and glucose providing complementary information in multi-marker panels.
Why it matters
Obesity drug development and nutrition research need reliable satiety biomarkers. This review identifies which measurements actually correlate with human appetite and which are just noise.
How the study worked
Critical review of studies correlating physiological measures (gut peptides, metabolites, neural signals) with subjective appetite ratings and measured food intake in humans.
What this study cannot tell us
Review of correlation studies. Correlation between a biomarker and satiety doesn't prove the biomarker drives satiety. Methodological differences between studies complicate comparisons.
How to read the evidence
Strong evidence from a critical review synthesizing multiple human appetite correlation studies.
When this study was published
Published in 2004. GLP-1's validation as a satiety biomarker here preceded its explosive success as an obesity drug target by over a decade.
The bigger picture
Appetite is too complex for one measurement. The multi-marker approach reflects biological reality — and GLP-1's validation here foreshadowed its later success as an obesity drug target.
Questions still open
- Should obesity clinical trials use multi-marker satiety panels?
- Can satiety biomarker profiles predict which patients respond to which obesity drugs?
- Does chronic obesity alter the biomarker-satiety relationship?
Common questions
Can a blood test measure how full you are?
Is this why GLP-1 drugs work for weight loss?
Read the original research
Biomarkers of satiation and satiety.
The American journal of clinical nutrition, 79(6), 946-61
Citation
de Graaf, Cees; Blom, Wendy A M; Smeets, Paul A M; Stafleu, Annette; Hendriks, Henk F J. (2004). Biomarkers of satiation and satiety.. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 79(6), 946-61.