RPEP-00036 · 1986Normal thymosin alpha 1 levels: 670 ± 163 pg/mL for males and 652 ± 162 pg/mL for females. Normal thymosin beta 4 levels: 974 ± 400 ng/mL for males and 889 ± 345 ng/mL for females. Note that beta 4 levels are about 1,000 times higher than alpha 1.
In AIDS patients, 57% had elevated thymosin alpha 1 and 48% had elevated thymosin beta 4. But there was no correlation between the two peptides' levels in any group, including healthy controls.
People with AIDS-related immune dysfunction (not full AIDS) showed a different pattern: 54% had elevated thymosin alpha 1 but only 15% had elevated thymosin beta 4. This suggests thymosin alpha 1 rises earlier in the disease process.
Naylor, P H; Friedman-Kien, A; Hersh, E; Erdos, M; Goldstein, A L · Cross Sectional
RPEP-00233 · 1992Salmonella genes required for antimicrobial peptide resistance were also required for macrophage survival and mouse virulence. Mutants were sensitive to both insect and mammalian peptides.
Groisman, E A; Parra-Lopez, C; Salcedo, M; Lipps, C J; Heffron, F · Animal Study
RPEP-00252 · 1992Lactoferricin inhibited Listeria monocytogenes (4 serotypes) at 0.3-9 micrograms/ml. Bactericidal concentrations were slightly higher. Effectiveness comparable to clinical antibiotics.
Wakabayashi, Hiroyuki; Bellamy, Wayne; Takase, Mitsunori; Tomita, Mamoru · In Vitro
RPEP-00297 · 1994Lactoferricin B showed broad-spectrum bactericidal activity at low concentrations, with enhanced effectiveness at lower pH and against actively growing bacteria.
Jones, E M; Smart, A; Bloomberg, G; Burgess, L; Millar, M R · In Vitro
RPEP-00304 · 1994Thymosin alpha 1 demonstrated promising antiviral and immune-enhancing effects in early hepatitis B and C trials, suggesting it could complement or replace interferon.
Mutchnick, M G; Ehrinpreis, M N; Kinzie, J L; Peleman, R R · Review
RPEP-00318 · 1995Met-enkephalin, dynorphin, and kappa agonist U50,488 suppressed IL-6-induced HIV-1 expression by over 40% in chronically infected monocyte cells.
Chao, C C; Gekker, G; Sheng, W S; Hu, S; Portoghese, P S; Peterson, P K · In Vitro
RPEP-00330 · 1995Brucella species showed broad resistance to 14 antimicrobial peptides, with their outer membranes remaining intact and binding less antimicrobial peptide than susceptible bacteria.
Martínez de Tejada, G; Pizarro-Cerdá, J; Moreno, E; Moriyón, I · In Vitro
RPEP-00360 · 1996Cecropin B was the most potent antimicrobial peptide against B. pertussis, with cecropins generally outperforming magainins, defensins, and protamine.
Fernandez, R C; Weiss, A A · In Vitro
RPEP-00363 · 1996Antimicrobial peptide effectiveness against Brucella abortus depended significantly on bacterial surface structure, with rough mutants showing different susceptibility patterns than smooth strains.
Halling, S M · In Vitro
RPEP-00364 · 1996Plasma adrenomedullin concentrations were extremely elevated in septic ICU patients compared to healthy controls, correlating with disease severity.
Hirata, Y; Mitaka, C; Sato, K; Nagura, T; Tsunoda, Y; Amaha, K; Marumo, F · Cross Sectional
RPEP-00381 · 1996Combination thymosin alpha-1 (1 mg twice weekly) and lymphoblastoid interferon was tested as a strategy to improve sustained response rates in chronic hepatitis C over interferon monotherapy.
Rasi, G; DiVirgilio, D; Mutchnick, M G; Colella, F; Sinibaldi-Vallebona, P; Pierimarchi, P; Valli, B; Garaci, E · RCT
RPEP-00399 · 1997Antimicrobial peptide effectiveness against mollicutes varied dramatically by species, with animal defense peptides being less potent than venom and bacterial peptides. Multiple cellular effects preceded killing.
Béven, L; Wróblewski, H · In Vitro
RPEP-00405 · 1997Three cationic antibacterial peptides purified from lactoferrin's N-terminus showed activity against enterotoxigenic E. coli, with one being particularly potent.
Dionysius, D A; Milne, J M · In Vitro
RPEP-00411 · 1997Recombinant chymosin digestion of lactoferrin yielded multiple antimicrobial peptides including lactoferricin B and novel variants with antibacterial activity.
Hoek, K S; Milne, J M; Grieve, P A; Dionysius, D A; Smith, R · In Vitro
RPEP-00474 · 1998Direct detection of lactoferricin generation in the human stomach after oral lactoferrin ingestion, providing the first in-vivo evidence of this bioactive peptide's natural formation during digestion.
Kuwata, H; Yip, T T; Tomita, M; Hutchens, T W · Clinical Trial
RPEP-00519 · 1999Circulin A's 3D structure reveals a cyclic cystine knot fold with exposed hydrophobic and positively charged surface patches, providing a structural basis for its membrane-disrupting anti-HIV activity.
Daly, N L; Koltay, A; Gustafson, K R; Boyd, M R; Casas-Finet, J R; Craik, D J · In Vitro
RPEP-00520 · 1999Antimicrobial peptide selectivity follows a balance: moderate hydrophobicity and amphipathicity maximize bacterial killing with minimal human cell toxicity, while excessive hydrophobicity increases toxicity without improving antibacterial activity.
Dathe, M; Wieprecht, T · Review
RPEP-00521 · 1999Periodontal pathogens P. gingivalis and Prevotella spp. produce extracellular proteases that degrade and inactivate antimicrobial peptides, representing a bacterial evasion mechanism against innate immune defenses in the oral cavity.
Devine, D A; Marsh, P D; Percival, R S; Rangarajan, M; Curtis, M A · In Vitro
RPEP-00539 · 1999High-resolution crystal structures of seven macrocyclic HIV protease inhibitors revealed specific binding interactions, demonstrating how cyclic peptide scaffolds can achieve potent enzyme inhibition with improved drug properties.
Martin, J L; Begun, J; Schindeler, A; Wickramasinghe, W A; Alewood, D; Alewood, P F; Bergman, D A; Brinkworth, R I; Abbenante, G; March, D R; Reid, R C; Fairlie, D P · In Vitro
RPEP-00549 · 1999Pulmonary clearance of adrenomedullin was significantly reduced during late-stage sepsis in rats, contributing to ADM accumulation and the hemodynamic collapse of septic shock.
Ornan, D A; Chaudry, I H; Wang, P · Animal Study
RPEP-00571 · 1999Adrenomedullin was locally upregulated in cardiac and aortic endothelial and smooth muscle cells during both early (hyperdynamic) and late (hypodynamic) sepsis stages, establishing cardiovascular tissue as a primary source.
Zhou, M; Chaudry, I H; Wang, P · Animal Study
RPEP-00636 · 2000Multiple host-defense peptides including lactoferricin and magainin-related peptides directly inactivated HSV-1 and HSV-2 in a validated microplate screening assay, expanding their known antimicrobial spectrum to include antiviral activity.
Yasin, B; Pang, M; Turner, J S; Cho, Y; Dinh, N N; Waring, A J; Lehrer, R I; Wagar, E A · In Vitro
RPEP-00637 · 2000Thymosin alpha-1 improved virological (HBV DNA clearance) and biochemical (ALT normalization) responses in anti-HBe positive chronic hepatitis B, a treatment-resistant subgroup.
Zavaglia, C; Severini, R; Tinelli, C; Franzone, J S; Airoldi, A; Tempini, S; Bettale, G; Ideo, G · RCT
RPEP-00641 · 2001Thymosin alpha-1 demonstrates clinical efficacy in chronic hepatitis B and C (combined with interferon), with emerging evidence for cancer immunotherapy, HIV, and vaccine enhancement, showing excellent tolerability.
Ancell, C D; Phipps, J; Young, L · Review
RPEP-00644 · 2001Thymosin alpha-1 + IFN-alpha shifted Th1/Th2 balance toward Th1 dominance (increased IFN-γ/IL-2, decreased IL-4/IL-10) in HCV patient PBMCs, while IFN-alpha alone produced only partial Th1 enhancement.
Andreone, P; Cursaro, C; Gramenzi, A; Margotti, M; Ferri, E; Talarico, S; Biselli, M; Felline, F; Tuthill, C; Martins, E; Gasbarrini, G; Bernardi, M · In Vitro
RPEP-00713 · 2002Native bovine lactoferrin and derived peptides (lactoferricin) inhibited HIV entry into cells, with positively charged proteins/peptides showing the strongest activity, supporting milk-derived compounds as natural antivirals.
Berkhout, Ben; van Wamel, Jeroen L B; Beljaars, Leonie; Meijer, Dirk K F; Visser, Servaas; Floris, René · In Vitro
RPEP-00715 · 2002Thymosin alpha-1 demonstrates clinical efficacy across hepatitis B, hepatitis C (with IFN), cancer (with chemo), and potentially HIV, with excellent tolerability and a favorable safety profile across all studied indications.
Billich, Andreas · Review
RPEP-00730 · 2002Novel macrocyclic amino acids that constrain peptides into beta-strand conformations were developed as protease inhibitor templates, showing application in antiviral drug design against HIV and HCV proteases.
Glenn, Matthew P; Pattenden, Leonard K; Reid, Robert C; Tyssen, David P; Tyndall, Joel D A; Birch, Christopher J; Fairlie, David P · In Vitro
RPEP-00742 · 2002Thymosin alpha-1 + famciclovir combination activated HBV-specific T-cell responses and achieved HBeAg seroconversion in some immune-tolerant chronic hepatitis B patients — a typically treatment-unresponsive population.
Lau, G K K; Nanji, A; Hou, J; Fong, D Y T; Au, W-S; Yuen, S-T; Lin, M; Kung, H-F; Lam, S-K · Clinical Trial
RPEP-00745 · 2002Chronic HBV treatment should be individualized based on viral markers, liver status, and patient characteristics, with thymosin alpha-1 offering an immune-enhancing alternative/complement to antiviral drugs across different HBV subgroups.
Leung, Nancy · Review
RPEP-00746 · 2002Thymosin alpha-1 accelerated restoration of T-cell-mediated neutralizing antibody responses in immunocompromised hosts, demonstrating faster immune reconstitution through both immunomodulatory and direct intracellular mechanisms.
Li, Chun-lin; Zhang, Ting; Saibara, Toshiji; Nemoto, Yoshihisa; Ono, Masafumi; Akisawa, Naoaki; Iwasaki, Shinji; Maeda, Takashi; Onishi, Saburo · Animal Study
RPEP-00768 · 2002Macrocyclic hairpin mimetics of protegrin I demonstrated broad-spectrum antibacterial activity including against resistant strains, with improved stability over linear peptide antibiotics and activity maintained in challenging conditions.
Shankaramma, Sasalu C; Athanassiou, Zafiria; Zerbe, Oliver; Moehle, Kerstin; Mouton, Carole; Bernardini, Francesca; Vrijbloed, Jan W; Obrecht, Daniel; Robinson, John A · In Vitro
RPEP-00783 · 2002Lactoferricin B synergized with sub-inhibitory minocycline and monoacylglycerol for enhanced killing of S. aureus including MRSA, achieving bactericidal activity at concentrations ineffective individually.
Wakabayashi, Hiroyuki; Teraguchi, Susumu; Tamura, Yoshitaka · In Vitro
RPEP-00796 · 2003Macrocyclic peptides designed to bind Holliday DNA junctions showed antibacterial activity, validating a completely novel antibiotic mechanism targeting bacterial DNA repair/recombination.
Bolla, Megan L; Azevedo, Enrique V; Smith, Jason M; Taylor, Rachel E; Ranjit, Dev K; Segall, Anca M; McAlpine, Shelli R · In Vitro
RPEP-00803 · 2003Thymosin alpha-1 + HAART improved CD4+ T-cell recovery in HIV patients with suboptimal immune reconstitution, with acceptable safety, demonstrating efficacy as an immune adjuvant for HIV treatment non-responders.
Chadwick, D; Pido-Lopez, J; Pires, A; Imami, N; Gotch, F; Villacian, J S; Ravindran, S; Paton, N I · RCT
RPEP-00805 · 2003Five synthetic 5-amino-acid peptides designed from lactoferricin's principles of lipophilic bulk and cationic charge showed potent broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, demonstrating ultra-short peptide antibiotics are viable.
Chen, Po-Wen; Shyu, Ching-Ling; Mao, Frank C · In Vitro
RPEP-00811 · 2003Lactoferrin's anti-adenovirus activity was mediated through its heparin-interacting domains, which compete with viral attachment to cell surface heparan sulfate — a mechanism explaining its broad antiviral spectrum against heparan sulfate-binding viruses.
Di Biase, Assunta Maria; Pietrantoni, Agostina; Tinari, Antonella; Siciliano, Rosa; Valenti, Piera; Antonini, Giovanni; Seganti, Lucilla; Superti, Fabiana · In Vitro
RPEP-00830 · 2003A structure-based macrocyclic peptide deformylase inhibitor showed potent enzyme inhibition with a novel antibiotic mechanism targeting an essential bacterial enzyme absent in humans.
Hu, Xubo; Nguyen, Kiet T; Verlinde, Christophe L M J; Hol, Wim G J; Pei, Dehua · In Vitro
RPEP-00847 · 2003High hydrostatic pressure sensitized Salmonella typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa outer-membrane mutants to lactoferrin, lactoferricin, and other antimicrobial peptides through outer membrane disruption.
Masschalck, Barbara; Deckers, Daphne; Michiels, Chris W · In Vitro
RPEP-00869 · 2003Lactoferricin demonstrates antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic, antitumor, and immunomodulatory activities — establishing it as a remarkably multi-functional peptide derived from the common milk protein lactoferrin.
Wakabayashi, H; Takase, M; Tomita, M · Review
RPEP-00879 · 2004Cecropin A, melittin, magainin, and indolicidin demonstrated antiviral activity against both Junin virus (arenavirus) and HSV-1, expanding the antimicrobial peptide antiviral spectrum to include hemorrhagic fever viruses.
Albiol Matanic, Vanesa C; Castilla, Viviana · In Vitro
RPEP-00880 · 2004Thymosin alpha-1 + interferon-alpha achieved 40% SVR versus 20% for interferon alone in naive chronic hepatitis C patients (n=22), demonstrating significant immune-mediated enhancement of antiviral efficacy.
Andreone, P; Gramenzi, A; Cursaro, C; Felline, F; Loggi, E; D'Errico, A; Spinosa, M; Lorenzini, S; Biselli, M; Bernardi, M · RCT
RPEP-00896 · 2004Thymalfasin achieved 25-40% sustained virological response in chronic HBV with response rates increasing over follow-up (unlike interferon relapse), superior safety profile, and durable immune-mediated viral control.
Chien, Rong-Nan; Liaw, Yun-Fan · Review
RPEP-00902 · 2004Bovine lactoferricin dose-dependently reduced Yersinia adhesion to and invasion of HEp-2 cells even at sub-bactericidal concentrations, demonstrating anti-virulence activity complementing its bactericidal effects.
Di Biase, Assunta Maria; Tinari, Antonella; Pietrantoni, Agostina; Antonini, Giovanni; Valenti, Piera; Conte, Maria Pia; Superti, Fabiana · In Vitro
RPEP-00912 · 2004Lactoferricin-derived peptides bound bacterial LPS and showed antimicrobial activity against E. coli including LPS mutant strains, with activity correlating with LPS binding — confirming membrane interaction as the killing mechanism.
Farnaud, Sebastien; Spiller, Claire; Moriarty, Laura C; Patel, Alpesh; Gant, Vanya; Odell, Edward W; Evans, Robert W · In Vitro
RPEP-00913 · 2004Bovine lactoferricin's superior antimicrobial activity versus human lactoferricin was explained by more complete amphipathic beta-sheet formation and denser cationic surface charge distribution, identified through 3D structural modeling.
Farnaud, Sebastien; Patel, Alpesh; Odell, Edward W; Evans, Robert W · In Vitro
RPEP-00927 · 2004Ring size optimization of macrocyclic peptide deformylase inhibitors identified the most potent macrocycle dimensions, with X-ray crystallography confirming optimal binding geometry — advancing this bacteria-selective antibiotic mechanism.
Hu, Xubo; Nguyen, Kiet T; Jiang, Vernon C; Lofland, Denene; Moser, Heinz E; Pei, Dehua · In Vitro
RPEP-00938 · 2004Novel pentadecapeptides designed by computational prediction from lactoferricin's activity features demonstrated real antibacterial activity against test organisms, validating in-silico antimicrobial peptide design approaches.
Lejon, Tore; Stiberg, Trine; Strøm, Morten B; Svendsen, John S · In Vitro
RPEP-00941 · 2004Thymalfasin achieved sustained HBV virological response with increasing durability over follow-up and minimal side effects, positioning it as a well-tolerated immune-based alternative for chronic hepatitis B treatment.
Liaw, Yun-Fan · Review
RPEP-00943 · 2004Lactoferricin inhibited Listeria monocytogenes adhesion to and internalization by THP-1 human macrophages, reducing early infection events beyond direct bacterial killing — demonstrating anti-virulence protection.
Longhi, Catia; Conte, Maria P; Penta, Michela; Cossu, Alessia; Antonini, Giovanni; Superti, Fabiana; Seganti, Lucilla · In Vitro