Browse more peptide research, methods and limitations.
Ghrelin's peripheral metabolic actions — orexigenic signaling, adipogenic activity, and cardiovascular protection — establish it as a master metabolic coordinator with therapeutic targets for obesity, cachexia, and cardiovascular disease.
Muccioli, Giampiero; Tschöp, Matthias; Papotti, Mauro; Deghenghi, Romano; Heiman, Mark; Ghigo, Ezio · Review
Endomorphins 1 and 2 are the most mu-opioid selective endogenous peptides, with potent analgesia and distinct pharmacological profiles suggesting separate roles in pain modulation and unique therapeutic potential.
Okada, Yoshio; Tsuda, Yuko; Bryant, Sharon D; Lazarus, Lawrence H · Review
Mature adrenomedullin and BNP provided complementary cardiac information in hemodialysis patients: BNP reflected LV dysfunction more specifically, while mAM reflected broader cardiovascular status including vascular and renal components.
Osajima, Akihiko; Okazaki, Masahiro; Tamura, Masahito; Anai, Hirofumi; Kabashima, Narutoshi; Suda, Takeshi; Iwamoto, Masako; Ota, Takayuki; Watanabe, Yuujiro; Kanegae, Kaori; Nakashima, Yasuhide · Cross Sectional
Thymosin alpha-1 restored suppressed bone marrow hematopoiesis in T-cell lymphoma mice, increasing colony-forming units (CFU-GM, BFU-E, CFU-GEMM) and peripheral blood counts across all lineages.
Paul, Saki; Sodhi, Ajit · Animal Study
Hexarelin and GHRH stimulated GH production directly from porcine and human lymphocytes, demonstrating functional GHS-R and GHRH-R on immune cells with a local GH autocrine/paracrine system.
Poppi, L; Dixit, V D; Baratta, M; Giustina, A; Tamanini, C; Parvizi, N · In Vitro
Dietary peptides from protein digestion induced satiety through both CCK-A and peripheral opioid receptor pathways, with the relative contribution of each pathway varying by protein source — different foods activate different satiety signals.
Pupovac, Jelena; Anderson, G Harvey · Animal Study
CRF1 promotes anxiety and depression while CRF2 may have opposing anxiolytic/stress-recovery effects, with urocortins as natural CRF2-preferring ligands enabling receptor-specific therapeutic targeting.
Reul, Johannes M H M; Holsboer, Florian · Review
GH secretagogues (GHRP-6, hexarelin, MK-677) offer clinical advantages over GH injections: oral availability, physiological pulsatile release patterns, and multiple applications from GH deficiency to aging, obesity, and critical illness.
Root, Allen W; Root, Michael J · Review
Bovine lactoferricin induced apoptosis in human HL-60 leukemia cells more potently than intact lactoferrin, with activity dependent on native protein structure, demonstrating structure-specific anti-leukemic killing.
Roy, M K; Kuwabara, Y; Hara, K; Watanabe, Y; Tamai, Y · In Vitro
Intracerebroventricular chicken ghrelin and GHRP-2 inhibited food intake in neonatal chicks — the opposite of the appetite-stimulating effect in mammals — revealing a fundamental species difference in ghrelin signaling.
Saito, Ei-suke; Kaiya, Hiroyuki; Takagi, Tomo; Yamasaki, Izumi; Denbow, D Michael; Kangawa, Kenji; Furuse, Mitsuhiro · Animal Study
Macrocyclic hairpin mimetics of protegrin I demonstrated broad-spectrum antibacterial activity including against resistant strains, with improved stability over linear peptide antibiotics and activity maintained in challenging conditions.
Shankaramma, Sasalu C; Athanassiou, Zafiria; Zerbe, Oliver; Moehle, Kerstin; Mouton, Carole; Bernardini, Francesca; Vrijbloed, Jan W; Obrecht, Daniel; Robinson, John A · In Vitro
Omapatrilat and lisinopril had equivalent effects on angiotensin II, aldosterone, and inflammatory cytokines in CHF, but omapatrilat additionally reduced natriuretic peptide levels, suggesting superior cardiac functional improvement.
Sheth, Tej; Parker, Tom; Block, Alan; Hall, Christian; Adam, Albert; Pfeffer, Mark A; Stewart, Duncan J; Qian, Chunlin; Rouleau, Jean L · RCT
Hypothalamic GHS-R antisense knockdown reduced both GH secretion and body weight/food intake in rats, confirming the hypothalamic receptor's dual role in mediating GH release and appetite regulation by ghrelin/GHS.
Shuto, Yujin; Shibasaki, Tamotsu; Otagiri, Asuka; Kuriyama, Hideki; Ohata, Hisayuki; Tamura, Hideki; Kamegai, Jun; Sugihara, Hitoshi; Oikawa, Shinichi; Wakabayashi, Ichiji · Animal Study
BPC-157 attenuated chronic amphetamine-induced tolerance, behavioral sensitization, and withdrawal disturbances in rats, demonstrating comprehensive dopamine system stabilization against stimulant drug-induced neuroplasticity.
Sikiric, Predrag; Jelovac, Nikola; Jelovac-Gjeldum, Andjelka; Dodig, Goran; Staresinic, Mario; Anic, Tomislav; Zoricic, Ivan; Rak, Davor; Perovic, Darko; Aralica, Gorana; Buljat, Gojko; Prkacin, Ingrid; Lovric-Bencic, Martina; Separovic, Jadranka; Seiwerth, Sven; Rucman, Rudolf; Petek, Marijan; Turkovic, Branko; Ziger, Tihomil; Boban-Blagaic, Alenka; Bedekovic, Vlado; Tonkic, Ante; Babic, Slaven · Animal Study
Thymosin alpha-1 activated anti-tumor macrophages through p38 MAPK and ERK signaling pathways, with pathway inhibition blocking the anti-tumor effect, identifying the specific intracellular mechanism of thymosin alpha-1's immunostimulatory action.
Sodhi, Ajit; Paul, Saki · In Vitro
Selank reduced anxiety behavior in naturally anxious BALB/c mice while modifying enkephalin-degrading enzyme activity, with the anxiolytic effect phenotype-dependent — working most in animals with the greatest enkephalin degradation.
Sokolov, O Yu; Meshavkin, V K; Kost, N V; Zozulya, A A · Animal Study
Chronic arthritic pain produced region-specific alterations in dynorphin B, met-enkephalin, and opioid receptor levels across brain, spinal cord, and pituitary, demonstrating multi-level opioid system adaptation to chronic inflammatory pain.
Spetea, Mariana; Rydelius, Gustav; Nylander, Ingrid; Ahmed, Mahmood; Bileviciute-Ljungar, Indre; Lundeberg, Thomas; Svensson, Stefan; Kreicbergs, Andris · Animal Study
Intrathecal big dynorphin at femtomole doses caused nociceptive behavior through NMDA receptor activation (blocked by MK-801) but not through opioid receptors (not blocked by naloxone), with higher doses causing reversible paralysis.
Tan-No, Koichi; Esashi, Akihisa; Nakagawasai, Osamu; Niijima, Fukie; Tadano, Takeshi; Sakurada, Chikai; Sakurada, Tsukasa; Bakalkin, Georgy; Terenius, Lars; Kisara, Kensuke · Animal Study
GHRP-2 increased fat mass in NPY knockout mice, demonstrating that GH secretagogue-induced adiposity is mediated by hypothalamic AgRP rather than NPY, identifying a critical alternative pathway for ghrelin's metabolic effects.
Tschöp, Matthias; Statnick, Michael A; Suter, Todd M; Heiman, Mark L · Animal Study
Ghrelin-induced adiposity required intact pituitary function (eliminated by hypophysectomy), while gastric ghrelin secretion paradoxically increased after pituitary removal — revealing pituitary-to-stomach feedback regulation of ghrelin.
Tschöp, Matthias; Flora, David B; Mayer, John P; Heiman, Mark L · Animal Study
Oral E2 selectively enhanced the GHRP-2 hypothalamic signaling component during combined GHRP-2/GHRH stimulation while reducing somatostatin restraint in postmenopausal women, revealing pathway-specific estrogen modulation of dual-peptide GH stimulation.
Veldhuis, J D; Evans, W S; Bowers, C Y · Clinical Trial
Lactoferricin B synergized with sub-inhibitory minocycline and monoacylglycerol for enhanced killing of S. aureus including MRSA, achieving bactericidal activity at concentrations ineffective individually.
Wakabayashi, Hiroyuki; Teraguchi, Susumu; Tamura, Yoshitaka · In Vitro
Phase- and level-specific pain modulation: beta-endorphin supraspinal/early phase; enkephalins spinal/late phase; dynorphin both levels/both phases — the most detailed mapping of endogenous opioid pain control organization.
Wu, Hsiang-En; Hung, Kuei-Chun; Mizoguchi, Hirokazu; Nagase, Hiroshi; Tseng, Leon F · Animal Study
Synthetic peptides designed to mimic HIV viral proteins proved sufficiently sensitive and specific for diagnosing HIV infection through ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) tests. These peptide-based diagnostics could reliably detect HIV-specific antibodies in AIDS patients and — importantly — could distinguish between HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections, as well as differentiate between various HIV subtypes. The review catalogues the most important peptide antigens developed for HIV immunodiagnosis, showing how synthetic peptides derived from key viral epitopes became practical tools for serological testing.
Alcaro, Maria Claudia; Peroni, Elisa; Rovero, Paolo; Papini, Anna Maria · Review
Subcutaneous Epitalon injections (0.1 µg per mouse, 5 consecutive days per month starting at 3 months of age) in female SHR mice increased both mean and maximum lifespan by 12.3% compared to untreated controls. The peptide did not increase total spontaneous tumor incidence but significantly decreased the incidence of malignant lymphomas. Additionally, Epitalon preserved estrous cycle function longer, slowed age-related deterioration of immune parameters, and reduced the frequency of chromosome aberrations in bone marrow cells of old mice.
Anisimov, V N; Khavinson, V Kh; Popovich, I G; Zabezhinski, M A; Alimova, I N; Rosenfeld, S V; Zavarzina, N Yu; Semenchenko, A V; Yashin, A I ·
BNP has evolved from a research peptide to an essential clinical tool for heart failure diagnosis, prognosis, screening, and treatment monitoring, with particularly high value in emergency department dyspnea differentiation.
Azzazy, Hassan M E; Christenson, Robert H · Review
BPC-157 maintained duodenal ulcer healing after sialoadenectomy while cimetidine and ranitidine lost effectiveness, demonstrating BPC-157's independence from salivary gland-derived protective factors — a unique pharmacological property.
Bedekovic, Vlado; Mise, Stjepan; Anic, Tomislav; Staresinic, Mario; Gjurasin, Miroslav; Kopljar, Mario; Kalogjera, Livije; Drvis, Petar; Boban Blagaic, Alenka; Batelja, Lovorka; Seiwerth, Sven; Sikiric, Predrag · Animal Study
Heart failure disrupted the normal pulsatile secretion patterns of both ANP and BNP, with BNP rhythm abnormalities correlating with disease severity — adding temporal pattern analysis to biomarker diagnostics.
Bentzen, Hans; Pedersen, Robert S; Pedersen, Henrik B; Nyvad, Ole; Pedersen, Erling B · Clinical Trial
BNP best predicted short-term outcomes in mild-moderate heart failure, while endothelin was more prognostic in advanced heart failure and over longer follow-up, demonstrating stage- and time-dependent prognostic value of neurohormonal biomarkers.
Berger, Rudolf; Strecker, Karin; Huelsmann, Martin; Moser, Petra; Frey, Bernhard; Bojic, Anja; Stanek, Brigitte; Pacher, Richard · Cohort
Met-enkephalin-Arg-Phe and dynorphin B were quantified in rat cortical bone, periosteum, bone marrow, joint cartilage, and synovial membrane, establishing a local opioid peptide system in musculoskeletal tissues.
Bergström, J; Ahmed, M; Kreicbergs, A; Nylander, I · Animal Study
Macrocyclic peptides designed to bind Holliday DNA junctions showed antibacterial activity, validating a completely novel antibiotic mechanism targeting bacterial DNA repair/recombination.
Bolla, Megan L; Azevedo, Enrique V; Smith, Jason M; Taylor, Rachel E; Ranjit, Dev K; Segall, Anca M; McAlpine, Shelli R · In Vitro
Ghrelin displays integrated central (GH, appetite, neuroprotection) and peripheral (cardiac, adipose, gastric) activities through widespread GHS-R distribution, functioning as a systemic metabolic coordinator rather than a single-function hormone.
Bona, G; Bellone, S · Review
Ghrelin's comprehensive activity profile includes GH/prolactin/cortisol release, appetite stimulation, adiposity, cardiovascular protection, and immune modulation, with multi-tissue production supporting both endocrine and local paracrine functions.
Broglio, Fabio; Gottero, Cristina; Arvat, Emanuela; Ghigo, Ezio · Review
Delta-opioid (met-enkephalin) and kappa-opioid (dynorphin A) receptor activation protected cardiomyocytes from simulated ischemia through KATP channel opening, confirming the opioid-KATP cardioprotection pathway.
Cao, Zhiping; Liu, Lijuan; Van Winkle, Donna M · In Vitro
Capromorelin showed potent GHS-R binding (Ki=7 nM), oral GH-releasing activity in rats, 60% oral bioavailability in dogs, and IGF-1 elevation with repeated dosing, emerging as a clinical development candidate.
Carpino, Philip A; Lefker, Bruce A; Toler, Steven M; Pan, Lydia C; Hadcock, John R; Cook, Ewell R; DiBrino, Joseph N; Campeta, Anthony M; DeNinno, Shari L; Chidsey-Frink, Kristin L; Hada, William A; Inthavongsay, John; Mangano, F Michael; Mullins, Michelle A; Nickerson, David F; Ng, Oicheng; Pirie, Christine M; Ragan, John A; Rose, Colin R; Tess, David A; Wright, Ann S; Yu, Li; Zawistoski, Michael P; DaSilva-Jardine, Paul A; Wilson, Theresa C; Thompson, David D · Animal Study
Among BNP, ANP, catecholamines, renin, and aldosterone, only BNP correlated with the restrictive diastolic filling pattern in severe systolic dysfunction — the most specific biomarker for this ominous prognostic sign.
Catuzzo, Bruna; Ciancamerla, Francesca; Bobbio, Marco; Longo, Marcella; Trevi, Gian Paolo · Cross Sectional
Thymosin alpha-1 + HAART improved CD4+ T-cell recovery in HIV patients with suboptimal immune reconstitution, with acceptable safety, demonstrating efficacy as an immune adjuvant for HIV treatment non-responders.
Chadwick, D; Pido-Lopez, J; Pires, A; Imami, N; Gotch, F; Villacian, J S; Ravindran, S; Paton, N I · RCT
Peripheral PYY3-36 acutely suppressed food intake and altered hypothalamic neuropeptide expression (decreased NPY, increased POMC) in mice, confirming it as a gut-derived satiety signal that modulates central appetite gene programs.
Challis, B G; Pinnock, S B; Coll, A P; Carter, R N; Dickson, S L; O'Rahilly, S · Animal Study
Five synthetic 5-amino-acid peptides designed from lactoferricin's principles of lipophilic bulk and cationic charge showed potent broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, demonstrating ultra-short peptide antibiotics are viable.
Chen, Po-Wen; Shyu, Ching-Ling; Mao, Frank C · In Vitro
Gastric pacing in morbidly obese patients altered circulating CCK, somatostatin, and leptin levels, providing a neuroendocrine mechanism for the satiety and weight loss effects of this device.
Cigaina, Valerio; Hirschberg, Angelica L · Clinical Trial
Orally active GH secretagogues and cortistatin (a somatostatin-related peptide) both target the ghrelin receptor, expanding the receptor's known ligand repertoire and therapeutic targeting possibilities.
Deghenghi, Romano; Broglio, Fabio; Papotti, Mauro; Muccioli, Giampiero; Ghigo, Ezio · Review
Bidirectional cross-reactivity between ghrelin/GHRP-6 and the motilin receptor was demonstrated: ghrelin activated the motilin receptor and motilin activated GHS-R, linking GH regulation and gut motility at the receptor level.
Depoortere, Inge; Thijs, Theo; Thielemans, Leen; Robberecht, Patrick; Peeters, Theo L · In Vitro
Lactoferrin's anti-adenovirus activity was mediated through its heparin-interacting domains, which compete with viral attachment to cell surface heparan sulfate — a mechanism explaining its broad antiviral spectrum against heparan sulfate-binding viruses.
Di Biase, Assunta Maria; Pietrantoni, Agostina; Tinari, Antonella; Siciliano, Rosa; Valenti, Piera; Antonini, Giovanni; Seganti, Lucilla; Superti, Fabiana · In Vitro
Satiety is controlled by a two-tier peripheral signaling system: short-term gut peptides (CCK, GLP-1, PYY, ghrelin, oxyntomodulin) for meal control and long-term adiposity signals (leptin, insulin) for body weight regulation, integrated by brainstem and hypothalamic circuits.
Drazen, Deborah L; Woods, Stephen C · Review
Bulky aromatic amino acid substitutions and lipophilic modifications enhanced bovine lactoferricin antitumor activity in a 15-residue fragment, with tryptophan residues identified as essential for cancer cell killing through membrane-disrupting mechanisms.
Eliassen, Liv Tone; Haug, Bengt Erik; Berge, Gerd; Rekdal, Oystein · In Vitro
Ghrelin, hexarelin, and EP-80317 improved cardiac contractile recovery after ischemia in isolated rat hearts, with effects on coronary perfusion pressure, while MK-677 showed less cardioprotection — suggesting peptide GHS are preferred cardiac protectants.
Frascarelli, Sabina; Ghelardoni, Sandra; Ronca-Testoni, Simonetta; Zucchi, Riccardo · Animal Study
The hFABP/myoglobin ratio combined with BNP improved detection of cardiac damage and volume overload in dialysis patients, providing a multi-marker approach that overcomes renal clearance confounding of individual markers.
Furuhashi, Masato; Ura, Nobuyuki; Hasegawa, Koichi; Yoshida, Hideaki; Tsuchihashi, Kazufumi; Nakata, Tomoaki; Shimamoto, Kaxuaki · Cross Sectional
Thymosin alpha-1 combined with low-dose cytokines and chemotherapy produced superior anti-tumor effects across experimental and human cancers, validating the triple-combination immunotherapy approach.
Garaci, Enrico; Pica, Francesca; Sinibaldi-Vallebona, Paola; Pierimarchi, Pasquale; Mastino, Antonio; Matteucci, Claudia; Rasi, Guido · Review
KPV (alpha-MSH 11-13) reduced crystal-induced peritonitis as effectively as full-length alpha-MSH via systemic administration, with melanocortin receptor-independent anti-inflammatory activity at the inflammation site.
Getting, Stephen J; Schiöth, Helgi B; Perretti, Mauro · Animal Study
Cellular immunodeficiency precedes and promotes cancer across multiple tumor types, and immunological correction with thymosin alpha-1 and cytokines alongside conventional therapy consistently improves patient outcomes.
Hadden, John W · Review