Peptide GLP-1 Agonists Research

GLP-1 receptor agonist initiation and risk of colorectal cancer and colonic polyps.

Moh'd Mari, Anwar Alshaakh · 2026

In a propensity-score-matched study of 86,083 pairs of diabetes patients, GLP-1 receptor agonist users had no increased or decreased risk of colorectal cancer compared to DPP-4 inhibitor users (OR=0.99, 95% CI: 0.84–1.17).

Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring strengthens the cardiovascular signal of GLP-1RA: a meta-analysis of blood pressure and weight mediation.

Renna, Nicolás F · 2026

A meta-analysis of 21 randomized trials with 145,322 participants found that GLP-1 receptor agonists reduced major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) by 14% (HR=0.86, 95% CI: 0.81–0.91).

Potential therapeutic role of GLP-1 receptor agonists in Idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Song, Jiahao · 2026

A meta-analysis of 7 studies with 11,973 participants found that GLP-1 receptor agonists significantly reduced the incidence of refractory idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH), lowered the risk of papilledema by 60% (RR=0.40), and reduced visual disturbances and blindness risk by 49% (RR=0.51).

Efficacy and safety of danuglipron (PF-06882961) in adults with obesity: A randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging phase 2b study.

Buckeridge, Clare · 2025

Pfizer's oral GLP-1 drug danuglipron produced statistically significant weight loss in adults with obesity — ranging from 5.0% to 12.9% beyond placebo depending on dose — over 26 to 32 weeks.

Plastic Surgery in the Ozempidemic: Considerations for the Timing of Body Contouring Surgery in Patients with Semaglutide-Associated Weight Loss.

Garbaccio, Noelle C · 2025

Weight loss on semaglutide plateaus at approximately 53 weeks (about 12 months) of treatment, with patients losing an average of 16% body weight.

Efficacy and Safety of Tirzepatide Compared with GLP-1 RAs in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Treated with Basal Insulin: A Network Meta-analysis.

Osumili, Beatrice · 2025

Tirzepatide at all doses (5, 10, 15 mg) significantly outperformed GLP-1 RAs for both blood sugar control and weight loss when combined with basal insulin..

Weight Loss Blockbuster Development: A Role for Unimolecular Polypharmacology.

Zhou, Qingtong · 2025

This review examines how unimolecular polypharmacology — designing single molecules that hit multiple receptors simultaneously — has transformed obesity and diabetes treatment.

Mechanisms of action and therapeutic applications of GLP-1 and dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonists.

Liu, Qiyuan Keith · 2024

This review maps out how the two incretin hormones — GIP and GLP-1 — work across multiple organ systems and why combining their actions in dual agonist drugs produces superior metabolic effects.

GLP-1 receptor agonists for weight reduction in people living with obesity but without diabetes: a living benefit-harm modelling study.

Moll, Hannah · 2024

For people with obesity but not diabetes, the benefits of GLP-1 agonists clearly outweighed the harms — but only if you're aiming for 10% or more weight loss.

Reduction of prevalence of patients meeting the criteria for metabolic syndrome with tirzepatide: a post hoc analysis from the SURPASS Clinical Trial Program.

Nicholls, Stephen J · 2024

Across the SURPASS 1–5 clinical trials, tirzepatide dramatically reduced the proportion of type 2 diabetes patients meeting criteria for metabolic syndrome.

Incretin mimetics and acute pancreatitis: enemy or innocent bystander?

Pratley, Richard · 2024

Meta-analyses of long-term randomized controlled trials show DPP-4 inhibitors carry a small increased risk of acute pancreatitis, but GLP-1 receptor agonists and GLP-1/GIP co-agonists do not.

Effects of Semaglutide on Heart Failure Outcomes in Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease in the FLOW Trial.

Pratley, Richard E · 2024

Semaglutide reduced the composite outcome of heart failure events or cardiovascular death (HR 0.73, meaning a 27% reduction, p = 0.0005).

Evaluating remission of type 2 diabetes using a metabolic intervention including fixed-ratio insulin degludec and liraglutide: A randomized controlled trial.

Punthakee, Zubin · 2024

During the 16-week intervention, participants achieved significantly lower HbA1c (40 vs 51 mmol/mol, p < 0.0001) and lost more weight (3.3% vs 1.9%, p = 0.02) compared to controls. After stopping all glucose-lowering drugs, there was a 37% lower hazard of diabetes relapse in the intervention group (HR 0.63, 95% CI 0.45-0.88, p = 0.007).

Tirzepatide: unveiling a new dawn in dual-targeted diabetes and obesity management.

Rabbani, Syed Arman · 2024

Tirzepatide's dual mechanism activating both GIP and GLP-1 receptors produces superior efficacy compared to GLP-1-only drugs.

Physiological Appetite Regulation and Bariatric Surgery.

Ramasamy, Indra · 2024

Appetite is regulated by two sets of neurons in the hypothalamus.

Effect of GLP-1 receptor agonists on weight and cardiovascular outcomes: A review.

Raza, Fatima Ali · 2024

GLP-1 receptor agonists work by mimicking the natural gut hormone GLP-1, which reduces appetite and slows stomach emptying.

Tirzepatide modulates the regulation of adipocyte nutrient metabolism through long-acting activation of the GIP receptor.

Regmi, Ajit · 2024

In human adipocytes (fat cells): - With insulin present: GIP receptor activation enhanced insulin signaling, boosted glucose uptake, and increased conversion of glucose to glycerol (for fat storage) - Without insulin: GIP receptor activation increased lipolysis (fat breakdown and release) In diet-induced obese mice treated with a long-acting GIP receptor agonist: - Reduced circulating triglyceride levels during oral lipid challenge - Increased lipoprotein-derived fatty acid uptake into adipose tissue This dual action (storing fat when fed, releasing fat when fasting) explains how GIP activation can simultaneously improve blood lipids while supporting proper fat tissue function..

Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonist (GLP1RA) Exposure and Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review of Population-Based Observational Studies.

Caparrotta, Thomas M · 2021

Across 200,148 participants and 396,457 person-years, GLP-1 RAs showed cardiovascular safety with potential MACE benefit for liraglutide (PE range 0.53-0.95) and no association with pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, or hypoglycemia..

Cardiorenal mechanisms of action of glucagon-like-peptide-1 receptor agonists and sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors.

Cherney, David Z I · 2021

GLP-1 RAs and SGLT2i protect cardiovascular and renal systems through distinct but complementary mechanisms: GLP-1 RAs reduce atherosclerotic events while SGLT2i reduce heart failure and preserve kidney function..

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists and sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors for people with cardiovascular disease: a network meta-analysis.

Kanie, Takayoshi · 2021

GLP-1RA: reduced CV death (OR 0.87), all-cause death (OR 0.88), stroke (OR 0.87) — all high-certainty.

Applying REWIND cardiovascular disease criteria to SUSTAIN 6 and PIONEER 6: An exploratory analysis of cardiovascular outcomes with semaglutide.

Verma, Subodh · 2021

Semaglutide reduced MACE by 26% (HR 0.74) in patients with established CVD using REWIND criteria, with a non-significant 16% reduction in the risk factor subgroup (p-interaction=0.60)..

A Role for GLP-1 in Treating Hyperphagia and Obesity.

Grill, Harvey J · 2020

GLP-1 receptor agonist drugs reduce body weight by activating the same brain circuits that are naturally engaged by gut-derived GLP-1 after eating and by bariatric surgery..

Cardiovascular effects of glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists: from mechanistic studies in humans to clinical outcomes.

Heuvelman, Valerie D · 2020

The review synthesizes preclinical and clinical evidence for cardiovascular effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs): GLP-1 receptors are abundantly present in heart tissue, providing a direct mechanism for cardiac effects.

Metabolic and cardiovascular benefits of GLP-1 agonists, besides the hypoglycemic effect (Review).

Iorga, Roua Anamaria · 2020

The review covers multiple GLP-1 receptor agonists and their non-glycemic benefits: Cardiovascular events: semaglutide and liraglutide demonstrated significant reduction in MACE with similar cardiovascular mortality rates.

Risk of Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events, Severe Hypoglycemia, and All-Cause Mortality for Widely Used Antihyperglycemic Dual and Triple Therapies for Type 2 Diabetes Management: A Cohort Study of All Danish Users.

Jensen, Morten Hasselstrøm · 2020

This massive real-world study compared outcomes across multiple diabetes drug combinations: Worst performer: metformin plus sulfonylurea (SU) had the highest risk of cardiovascular events and death.

Glycaemic and non-glycaemic efficacy of once-weekly GLP-1 receptor agonists in people with type 2 diabetes.

Patel, Dhiren · 2020

Semaglutide subcutaneous was superior to dulaglutide and exenatide ER for HbA1c and weight reduction in head-to-head trials, with both semaglutide and dulaglutide showing cardiovascular and renal benefits..

Cardiovascular Effects of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors and Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists: a Review for the General Cardiologist.

Patel, Kershaw V · 2020

GLP-1 RAs (liraglutide, semaglutide, albiglutide, dulaglutide) reduce MACE in T2DM patients with CV disease, while DPP-4 inhibitors show CV safety but no MACE benefit, with saxagliptin increasing HF risk..

Safety of injectable semaglutide for type 2 diabetes.

Peter, Rajesh · 2020

Semaglutide demonstrated cardiovascular superiority in SUSTAIN 6, with a safety profile typical of GLP-1RAs.

Incretin-based drugs and risk of lung cancer among individuals with type 2 diabetes.

Rouette, J · 2020

Neither DPP-4 inhibitors (HR 1.07, 95% CI 0.87-1.32) nor GLP-1 receptor agonists (HR 1.02, 95% CI 0.68-1.54) were associated with increased lung cancer risk, with no duration-response relationship..

PANCREATIC SAFETY IN STUDIES OF THE GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 RECEPTOR AGONIST ALBIGLUTIDE.

Al-Kawas, Firas · 2019

An independent expert panel reviewed all suspected pancreatitis cases across the entire HARMONY Phase III clinical program for albiglutide (a GLP-1 receptor agonist).

Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes.

Marso, Steven P · 2016

In the landmark SUSTAIN-6 trial, weekly semaglutide reduced the rate of major cardiovascular events (cardiovascular death, nonfatal heart attack, or nonfatal stroke) by 26% compared to placebo in patients with type 2 diabetes at high cardiovascular risk (hazard ratio 0.74; 95% CI 0.58–0.95; P<0.001 for noninferiority).

Orlistat inhibition of intestinal lipase acutely increases appetite and attenuates postprandial glucagon-like peptide-1-(7-36)-amide-1, cholecystokinin, and peptide YY concentrations.

Ellrichmann, Mark · 2008

Orlistat inhibition of intestinal lipase acutely increased appetite and attenuated GLP-1/PYY satiety responses, proving that fat absorption (not just fat presence) is required for satiety hormone release — the gut must PROCESS fat to signal fullness..

Gastrointestinal hormones regulating appetite.

Chaudhri, Owais · 2006

Comprehensive mapping of GI appetite hormones: ghrelin as the sole orexigenic signal; GLP-1, PYY3-36, oxyntomodulin, CCK, amylin, PP, and bombesin/GRP as anorexigenic signals — each acting through distinct receptors and pathways for integrated satiety control..

Gut-brain axis: regulation of glucose metabolism.

Heijboer, A C · 2006

The gut-brain glucose regulatory axis operates through incretin peptides (GLP-1, GIP), neural signals, and other gut hormones to control glucose metabolism — pharmacological exploitation has produced GLP-1 agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors as major diabetes drug classes..

Gut hormone profiles following bariatric surgery favor an anorectic state, facilitate weight loss, and improve metabolic parameters.

le Roux, Carel W · 2006

Bariatric surgery produced comprehensive gut hormone profile transformation: elevated GLP-1, PYY3-36, and oxyntomodulin with suppressed ghrelin, creating an anorectic hormonal milieu that facilitates weight loss and improves glucose metabolism beyond mechanical restriction..

Gut peptides in the regulation of food intake and energy homeostasis.

Murphy, Kevin G · 2006

Complete 2006 mapping of gut peptide appetite regulation: GLP-1 and PYY3-36 as top obesity targets, with CCK, oxyntomodulin, amylin, and PP providing complementary satiety signals — ghrelin as the sole orexigenic gut peptide..

Biomarkers of satiation and satiety.

de Graaf, Cees · 2004

CCK and GLP-1 are the most validated satiety biomarkers correlating with both subjective appetite ratings and actual food intake, with PYY, ghrelin, insulin, and glucose providing complementary information in multi-marker panels..

Peripheral signals in the control of satiety and hunger.

Drazen, Deborah L · 2003

Satiety is controlled by a two-tier peripheral signaling system: short-term gut peptides (CCK, GLP-1, PYY, ghrelin, oxyntomodulin) for meal control and long-term adiposity signals (leptin, insulin) for body weight regulation, integrated by brainstem and hypothalamic circuits..

Association of GLP-1 receptor agonist use with psychiatric outcomes in adults with type 2 diabetes: a target trial emulation.

Tang, Huilin · 2026

GLP-1 receptor agonists were not associated with increased risk of most psychiatric disorders compared to SGLT2 inhibitors or DPP-4 inhibitors in adults with type 2 diabetes.

Airway Management in the Age of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists: New Challenges and Solutions.

Valkeniers, Karolien · 2026

GLP-1 receptor agonists slow gastric emptying as part of their mechanism of action, which creates a new challenge for anesthesiologists: patients on these drugs may have food or liquid remaining in their stomachs even after standard fasting periods before surgery.

GLP-1, Pancreatic β-Cells, and Insulin Secretion: What We Know and Where We Need to Go.

Vogt, Éverton L · 2026

This review argues that GLP-1 receptor agonists should be understood as integrative regulators of pancreatic beta-cell function, not just appetite suppressors.

A Systematic Review on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists in Reproductive Health: Integrating IVF Data, Ovarian Physiology and Molecular Mechanisms.

Voros, Charalampos · 2026

GLP-1 receptor agonists directly affect ovarian biology — not just through weight loss, but by acting on ovarian cells themselves.

A Managed Access Protocol for Liraglutide for Weight Management: A Retrospective, Observational Study in Ireland.

Barrett, Rosealeen · 2025

Ireland's Managed Access Protocol (MAP) for liraglutide (Saxenda) approved 52.2% of the 7,927 physician applications submitted in its first year.

Dermatologic Implications of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist Medications.

Burke, Olivia M · 2025

GLP-1 receptor agonists are associated with a range of dermatologic effects — some harmful, some potentially beneficial.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor modulates cerebrospinal fluid secretion and intracranial pressure in rats.

Jensen, Mette N · 2025

GLP-1 receptors on the choroid plexus (the brain structure that produces cerebrospinal fluid) directly modulate CSF production and intracranial pressure in rats.

Impact of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists on Age-Related Macular Degeneration at a Tertiary Ophthalmology Center.

Joo, Julia H · 2025

GLP-1 receptor agonist use was associated with a significantly lower risk of developing nonexudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD) compared to metformin, insulin, and SGLT-2 inhibitors.

Intestinal bitter taste receptors in health: a multifactorially regulated role from the perspective of metabolic crosstalk.

Liang, Jiafan · 2025

Bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs) in the intestines do far more than detect bitter flavors — they regulate the release of gut hormones like GLP-1, control gastric emptying, and influence appetite, satiety, and energy balance.

Contemporary treatment patterns of overweight and obesity: insights from the Mass General Brigham health care system.

Ostrominski, John W · 2025

Only 1.4% of the 1.1 million patients eligible for anti-obesity medications were actually prescribed them..

Trends in Utilization of Glucose- and Weight-Lowering Medications After Tirzepatide Approval in the United States : A Population-Based Cohort Study.

Ostrominski, John W · 2025

Tirzepatide reached 12.3% of diabetes medication dispensations and 40.6% of weight-loss medication dispensations within about 18 months of market entry..

Effectiveness for adding or switching from other incretin-related drugs to oral semaglutide in type 2 diabetes.

Oya, Junko · 2025

Oral semaglutide reduced HbA1c by 0.85% in naive patients, 0.67% in DPP-4i switchers, and 0.13% in GLP-1 RA switchers..

Effects of weight-loss interventions on bone health in people living with obesity.

Paccou, Julien · 2025

All weight-loss interventions increase bone turnover; bariatric surgery is worst for bone health.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonism improves lung cancer outcomes and tumor growth control.

Pachimatla, Akhil Goud · 2025

GLP-1 receptor agonist use was associated with a 59% reduction in the hazard of recurrence or death after lung cancer surgery (HR 0.41), and a 69% reduction in the hazard of progression when added to immunotherapy, in overweight and obese patients..

Multimodal Prehabilitation for Hernia Repair: Linking Metabolic Modulation and Mechanical Methods.

Paduraru, Dan Nicolae · 2025

GLP-1 receptor agonists achieve 10–20% weight reduction and reduce perioperative complications in hernia patients, but the delayed gastric emptying they cause creates anesthesia safety challenges requiring individualized fasting protocols..

Assessment of Gastric Content Using Gastric Ultrasound in Patients on Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists Before Anesthesia.

Pai, Sher-Lu · 2025

A substantial proportion of patients on GLP-1 receptor agonists had high residual gastric contents before anesthesia despite standard fasting, suggesting current preoperative fasting guidelines may be inadequate for this population..

Analysis of tirzepatide in the US FDA adverse event reporting system (FAERS): a focus on overall patient population and sex-specific subgroups.

Ou, Yingyong · 2024

Analysis of 37,827 adverse event reports for tirzepatide in the FDA's FAERS database identified 100 statistically significant adverse event signals.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in type 2 diabetes: Emerging evidence of benefit of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors agonists and incretin-based therapies.

Pramanik, Subhodip · 2024

PPAR agonists work by making cells more sensitive to insulin.

Antidiabetic Treatment and Prevention of Ischemic Stroke: A Systematic Review.

Prentza, Vasiliki · 2024

Among diabetes medications studied for stroke prevention, GLP-1 receptor agonists (specifically semaglutide and dulaglutide) reduced the risk of ischemic stroke in people with type 2 diabetes.

SGLT2 Inhibitors, but Not GLP-1 Receptor Agonists, Reduce Incidence of Gout in People Living With Type 2 Diabetes Across the Therapeutic Spectrum.

Preston, Frank G · 2024

SGLT2 inhibitors with metformin reduced gout incidence by 25% compared to metformin alone (HR 0.75, p < 0.0001).

NOVEL AGENTS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF DIABETES AND RISK OF WORSENING DIABETIC RETINOPATHY.

Rajagopal, Rithwick · 2024

In the SUSTAIN-6 cardiovascular outcome trial, semaglutide was associated with approximately 75% increased risk of diabetic retinopathy (DR) worsening.

SPIRIT: Assessing Clinical Parameters Associated with Using IDegLira in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes in a Real-World Setting in Colombia.

Ramírez-Rincón, Alex · 2024

After approximately 26 weeks on IDegLira: - HbA1c decreased by 1.3% (from 9.1% to 7.8%, p < 0.0001) - Body weight decreased by 1 kg (from 76.1 to 75.1 kg, p < 0.0001) - No severe hypoglycemic events observed - Mean final IDegLira dose: 21.3 units These results were achieved in patients who had previously been on basal insulin (with or without oral diabetes drugs) and were not reaching their blood sugar targets.

Lymphatic uptake of the lipidated and non-lipidated GLP-1 agonists liraglutide and exenatide is similar in rats.

Reddiar, Sanjeevini Babu · 2024

After subcutaneous injection in rats: - Liraglutide: apparent half-life 9.1 hours, delayed peak plasma levels, bioavailability ~10% - Exenatide: half-life ~1 hour, bioavailability ~100% Lymphatic uptake was low for both peptides (<0.5% of dose), though lymph-to-plasma concentration ratios exceeded 1 at several early timepoints, suggesting some direct lymph uptake.

Tirzepatide, GIP(1-42) and GIP(1-30) display unique signaling profiles at two common GIP receptor variants, E354 and Q354.

Rees, Tayla A · 2024

Tirzepatide showed biased agonism at the GIP receptor, meaning it preferentially activated the Gαs/cAMP pathway while having weaker effects on IP1 accumulation, AKT, ERK1/2, and CREB phosphorylation.

Efficacy and safety of semaglutide in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and obesity.

Rehman, Ayesha · 2024

Semaglutide produced significant improvements in patients with HFpEF and obesity: - 6-minute walk distance: improved by 15.1 meters vs placebo (95% CI 5.8-24.4, p = 0.002) - Body weight: reduced by 2.9% vs placebo (95% CI -4.1 to -1.7, p = 0.001) - C-reactive protein: reduced (indicating lower inflammation) - Several secondary clinical endpoints also improved - Adverse events: generally well-tolerated with no unexpected safety concerns.

Assessing the Renal Outcomes of Semaglutide in Diabetic Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review.

Rehman, Shuja Ur · 2024

Albuminuria was more consistently reduced by semaglutide than eGFR.

Hunger and Satiety Peptides: Is There a Pattern to Classify Patients with Prader-Willi Syndrome?

Bueno, Marta · 2021

Cluster analysis separated PWS patients (23/27) into a distinct group with paradoxically elevated levels of both hunger (ghrelin) and satiety (leptin, PYY, GIP, GLP-1) hormones, suggesting hormonal dysfunction rather than simple imbalance..

Effects of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists on Bone Mineral Density in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A 52-Week Clinical Study.

Cai, Ting-Ting · 2021

GLP-1 RAs increased bone mineral density at multiple skeletal sites over 52 weeks, while placebo showed significant bone loss at the spine, femoral neck, and total hip..

Therapeutic Potential of Peptides Derived from Animal Venoms: Current Views and Emerging Drugs for Diabetes.

Coulter-Parkhill, Aimee · 2021

Venom-derived peptides from diverse species (bees, cone snails, sea anemones, scorpions, snakes, spiders) show potential for glycemic control, building on the proven success of exendin-4/exenatide..

Anticipatory guidance and systematic review of prescribing combination incretin therapy in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Cowart, Kevin · 2021

Combining GLP-1 RA and DPP-4 inhibitor provides only a small incremental reduction in HbA1c and weight loss, with the benefit unlikely to offset potential pancreatitis risk and additional cost..

Appetite, the enteroendocrine system, gastrointestinal disease and obesity.

Crooks, Benjamin · 2021

Postprandial gut peptide hormones may not play a dominant role in normal appetite regulation in healthy individuals; their impact may be more significant in GI disease states where levels become supraphysiological..

Prescribing in Type 2 Diabetes Patients With and Without Cardiovascular Disease History: A Descriptive Analysis in the UK CPRD.

Farmer, Ruth E · 2021

GLP-1RA use was only 4.3-4.9% and SGLT2i use 9.8-13.8% in UK T2DM patients by December 2019, with paradoxically lower use in patients with CVD history who would benefit most.

Asthma Exacerbations in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Asthma on Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists.

Foer, Dinah · 2021

GLP-1RA users had significantly fewer asthma exacerbations at 6 months compared to SGLT-2 inhibitors (IRR 2.98), DPP-4 inhibitors (IRR 2.45), sulfonylureas (IRR 1.83), and basal insulin (IRR 2.58), all with p<0.05..

Effects of whey protein and dietary fiber intake on insulin sensitivity, body composition, energy expenditure, blood pressure, and appetite in subjects with abdominal obesity.

Fuglsang-Nielsen, Rasmus · 2021

Whey protein for 12 weeks reduced subjective hunger (p=0.02) and increased postprandial peptide YY response (with low fiber), but had no effect on insulin sensitivity, GLP-1, body composition, 24-hour blood pressure, or energy expenditure versus maltodextrin control..

Therapeutic Potential of a Novel Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonist, NLY01, in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

Gharagozloo, Marjan · 2021

NLY01 delayed EAE onset and reduced severity in prevention paradigm, inhibited immune cell activation and CNS trafficking, suppressed chemokine production, blocked neurotoxic astrocyte genes, prevented retinal ganglion cell loss, and reduced clinical scores in relapsing-remitting EAE..

A Review on the Role of Food-Derived Bioactive Molecules and the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Satiety Regulation.

Pizarroso, Nuria A · 2021

Three gut peptide hormones — CCK, GLP-1, and PYY — serve as the primary signaling molecules in the satiety system, released by enteroendocrine cells (EECs) in response to specific macronutrients detected through nutrient-sensing receptors.

Macronutrient intake, appetite, food preferences and exocrine pancreas function after treatment with short- and long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in type 2 diabetes.

Quast, Daniel R · 2021

Both GLP-1 receptor agonists produced comparable effects on: - Macronutrient and energy intake (equally reduced) - Body weight loss - Appetite reduction The key mechanistic finding was that weight loss and appetite reduction were NOT related to delayed gastric emptying or GI side effects (p > 0.05 for both).

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist inhibits aeroallergen-induced activation of ILC2 and neutrophilic airway inflammation in obese mice.

Toki, Shinji · 2021

GLP-1RA reduced allergen-induced airway neutrophilia and multiple inflammatory cytokines in obese mice, an effect not achieved by TSLP or ST2 inhibition alone..

Oral semaglutide versus injectable glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists: a cost of control analysis.

Hansen, B B · 2020

The cost-of-control analysis compared oral semaglutide 14 mg against six injectable GLP-1 receptor agonists for type 2 diabetes.

Dairy products influence gut hormone secretion and appetite differently: A randomized controlled crossover trial.

Hansson, Patrik · 2020

Despite identical fat content (45 grams, about 60% of meal calories), the four dairy products produced different hormonal and appetite responses. Cheese stood out: it triggered higher plasma pancreatic polypeptide (PP) than butter or whipped cream (measured as incremental area under the curve over 6 hours).

Exenatide induces frataxin expression and improves mitochondrial function in Friedreich ataxia.

Igoillo-Esteve, Mariana · 2020

The study tested exenatide across three levels of evidence: In frataxin-deficient mice, exenatide improved glucose handling through enhanced insulin content and secretion.

Association Between Ketosis and Changes in Appetite Markers with Weight Loss Following a Very Low-Energy Diet.

Martins, Catia · 2020

Fasting βHB negatively correlated with ghrelin changes (P=0.003) and positively with GLP-1 (P=0.025) and CCK (P=0.035) after 17.7 kg weight loss, but not with subjective appetite..

Effectiveness of dulaglutide vs liraglutide and exenatide once-weekly. A real-world study and meta-analysis of observational studies.

Morieri, Mario Luca · 2020

Dulaglutide reduced HbA1c 0.24% more than liraglutide in real-world clinical practice (p=0.003), confirmed by meta-analysis of observational studies..

Nephroprotective effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists: where do we stand?

Mosterd, Charlotte M · 2020

GLP-1 receptor agonists reduce macro-albuminuria in cardiovascular safety trials, with multiple proposed kidney-protective mechanisms including anti-inflammatory, hemodynamic, and metabolic effects..

Intratracheal GLP-1 receptor agonist treatment up-regulates mucin via p38 and exacerbates emphysematous phenotype in mucus hypersecretory obstructive lung diseases.

Nohara, Hirofumi · 2020

GLP-1 receptor agonists upregulate mucin expression in airways via p38 MAPK, exacerbating emphysematous phenotypes in obstructive lung disease models..

Oxyntomodulin analogue increases energy expenditure via the glucagon receptor.

Scott, R · 2018

Using a sustained-release oxyntomodulin analogue (OX-SR) in rats, researchers definitively showed that the energy expenditure (calorie-burning) effect of oxyntomodulin occurs through the glucagon receptor, not the GLP-1 receptor.

Development of novel ligands for peptide GPCRs.

Moran, Brian M · 2016

This review maps out the landscape of peptide receptors on pancreatic beta cells that can be targeted for diabetes treatment.

Failure of sucrose replacement with the non-nutritive sweetener erythritol to alter GLP-1 or PYY release or test meal size in lean or obese people.

Overduin, Joost · 2016

Replacing sucrose with the low-calorie bulk sweetener erythritol in test meals did not change post-meal GLP-1 or PYY gut hormone levels, and did not affect how much food people ate afterward or their preference for sweet foods.

Vagal and hormonal gut-brain communication: from satiation to satisfaction.

Berthoud, H-R · 2008

Post-meal fullness involves two phases: satiation (meal termination via vagal mechanoreception + CCK) and sustained satisfaction (inter-meal fullness via GLP-1, PYY, insulin, leptin) — distinguishing the immediate fullness signal from prolonged appetite suppression for targeted drug development..

Appetite-related gut peptides, ghrelin, PYY, and GLP-1 in obese women with and without binge eating disorder (BED).

Geliebter, Allan · 2008

Obese women with BED showed distinct postprandial gut peptide profiles (altered ghrelin, PYY3-36, GLP-1) compared to non-binge obese controls, identifying BED-specific gut hormone dysfunction beyond general obesity-related appetite changes..

Postprandial changes in gut regulatory peptides in gastric bypass patients.

Holdstock, C · 2008

Postprandial GLP-1, PYY3-36, and other gut regulatory peptides dramatically increased following gastric bypass, with enhanced hormonal satiety signaling correlating with reduced appetite and caloric intake — hormonal reprogramming, not restriction, as the primary surgical mechanism..

Effect of protein, fat, carbohydrate and fibre on gastrointestinal peptide release in humans.

Karhunen, L J · 2008

Different macronutrients trigger distinct gut peptide profiles: protein produces the strongest and most diverse satiety peptide response (GLP-1, PYY, CCK); fat strongly triggers CCK/GLP-1; carbohydrate mainly GIP/insulin; fiber enhances GLP-1/PYY through fermentation — macronutrient-specific appetite pharmacology..

Hormone-based therapies in the regulation of fuel metabolism and body weight.

Kesty, Nicole C · 2008

Hormone-based fuel metabolism drugs span GLP-1 agonists (semaglutide class), amylin analogs (pramlintide), PYY analogs, and ghrelin modulators for integrated obesity/diabetes treatment — exploiting endogenous regulatory peptide systems for superior metabolic control..

New drugs for type 2 diabetes mellitus: what is their place in therapy?

Krentz, Andrew J · 2008

New diabetes drugs include GLP-1 agonists (exenatide, liraglutide: injectable, weight loss, low hypo risk), DPP-4 inhibitors (sitagliptin, vildagliptin: oral, weight neutral), and amylin analog (pramlintide) — peptide-based drugs transforming type 2 diabetes treatment..

Combination pharmacotherapy with incretins: what works best and when?

Over, Rebecca K · 2008

GLP-1 agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors combine synergistically with metformin (first-line), sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones, and insulin for T2DM, with combination selection guided by patient weight, hypo risk, and HbA1c target — practical combination pharmacotherapy guidance..

Managed care perspective on three new agents for type 2 diabetes.

VanDeKoppel, Shawna · 2008

Managed care analysis of exenatide (GLP-1 agonist: weight loss, injectable), sitagliptin (DPP-4 inhibitor: oral, weight neutral), and pramlintide (amylin analog: injectable, weight loss) for T2DM positioning — incretin drugs transforming diabetes pharmacotherapy economics..

Role of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase-gamma in the actions of glucagon-like peptide-2 on the murine small intestine.

Anini, Younes · 2007

PI3K-gamma was identified as an essential mediator of GLP-2's intestinal mucosal growth effects, with PI3K-gamma knockout mice showing impaired GLP-2-stimulated mucosal proliferation — mapping the signal transduction for gut peptide-driven intestinal repair..

New therapies for diabetes.

Green, Dina E · 2007

GLP-1 receptor agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors exploit the incretin system for diabetes treatment, providing glucose-dependent insulin stimulation, weight loss (GLP-1 agonists), and low hypoglycemia risk — the most significant new diabetes drug class..

A carbohydrate-restricted diet alters gut peptides and adiposity signals in men and women with metabolic syndrome.

Hayes, Matthew R · 2007

Carbohydrate restriction in metabolic syndrome patients modified gut peptide profiles (reduced ghrelin, altered PYY) and adipokine levels (decreased leptin, increased adiponectin), with hormonal changes correlating with weight loss and improved metabolic markers..

Gut hormones as mediators of appetite and weight loss after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass.

le Roux, Carel W · 2007

Enhanced GLP-1 and PYY responses with suppressed ghrelin after RYGB mediated sustained appetite reduction and weight loss, with gut hormone changes persisting years post-surgery — establishing hormonal modification (not just restriction) as the primary mechanism of bariatric success..

Review article: The gastrointestinal tract: neuroendocrine regulation of satiety and food intake.

Maljaars, J · 2007

GI neuroendocrine satiety regulation integrates gut peptide signals (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, oxyntomodulin, ghrelin), enteric neural pathways, and central melanocortin/NPY circuits for comprehensive food intake control — gut peptide drugs leading the obesity treatment pipeline..

Appetite signaling: from gut peptides and enteric nerves to brain.

Näslund, Erik · 2007

The appetite signaling chain: food → gut peptide release (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, ghrelin) → enteric nerve detection → vagal afferent transmission → brainstem integration (NTS) → hypothalamic processing (arcuate) → behavioral output — the complete food-to-decision neural-humoral pathway..

The importance of acclimatisation and habituation to experimental conditions when investigating the anorectic effects of gastrointestinal hormones in the rat.

Abbott, C R · 2006

PYY3-36 and GLP-1-mediated appetite suppression required proper mouse acclimatization and habituation to experimental conditions; non-acclimatized mice showed variable, unreliable anorectic responses — explaining conflicting literature results..

Progressive rise in gut hormone levels after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass suggests gut adaptation and explains altered satiety.

Borg, C M · 2006

GLP-1 and PYY3-36 progressively increased over months post-RYGB, with the rise correlating with reduced appetite and sustained weight loss — gut hormonal adaptation (not just restriction) explains bariatric surgery's long-term success..

Interactions between gut peptides and the central melanocortin system in the regulation of energy homeostasis.

Ellacott, Kate L J · 2006

Peripheral gut peptides (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, ghrelin) converge on the hypothalamic melanocortin system (POMC/AgRP neurons) as the central integration point, with melanocortin neurons serving as the final common pathway translating gut signals into eating behavior..

Differential effects of gastric bypass and banding on circulating gut hormone and leptin levels.

Korner, Judith · 2006

RYGB produced significantly greater postprandial GLP-1 and PYY3-36 increases and greater ghrelin suppression than gastric banding, with hormonal changes correlating with superior weight loss — gut hormone modification, not restriction alone, explains bypass superiority..

Gut feeling--the secret of satiety?

Bloom, Steve · 2005

Post-prandial gut hormones (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, oxyntomodulin) signal satiety through vagal and bloodstream pathways to brainstem/hypothalamic circuits, with combination peptide mimicry showing greater satiety than single agents — the future of appetite pharmacology..

Evaluation of interactions between CCK and GLP-1 in their effects on appetite, energy intake, and antropyloroduodenal motility in healthy men.

Brennan, Ixchel M · 2005

Combined CCK and GLP-1 infusion produced additive effects on appetite suppression and antropyloroduodenal motility in healthy humans — supporting combination gut peptide therapy for superior satiety and weight management..

How palatable food disrupts appetite regulation.

Erlanson-Albertsson, Charlotte · 2005

Palatable food disrupts appetite regulation through opioid reward pathway overactivation (hedonic eating), blunted satiety peptide responses (GLP-1, PYY, CCK), and altered ghrelin dynamics — creating a multi-level biological mechanism for food addiction and overconsumption..

Dietary lactitol fermentation increases circulating peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1 in rats and humans.

Gee, Jennifer M · 2005

Lactitol colonic fermentation increased circulating PYY and GLP-1 in rats and humans, establishing that short-chain fatty acid production from dietary fiber fermentation stimulates L-cell satiety peptide secretion — a prebiotic mechanism for appetite regulation..

Brain somatic cross-talk: ghrelin, leptin and ultimate challengers of obesity.

Popovic, Vera · 2005

Ghrelin-leptin cross-talk through the brain-gut axis constitutes the core energy balance system, integrating with GLP-1, PYY, NPY, and melanocortin circuits — obesity results from disruption of this integrated network..

Entero-insular axis in children with anorexia nervosa.

Tomasik, Przemyslaw J · 2005

Children with anorexia nervosa demonstrated disrupted entero-insular axis responses: abnormal GLP-1, insulin, glucose, and gut peptide dynamics after meals compared to healthy controls — gut hormone dysfunction may perpetuate the disease beyond psychological factors..

Minireview: Gut peptides regulating satiety.

Druce, Maralyn R · 2004

At least 8 gut/pancreatic hormones regulate satiety, with GLP-1, PYY, and amylin identified as the most promising therapeutic targets for obesity — with combination therapy suggested for superior outcomes..

The pharmacology of human appetite expression.

Halford, Jason C G · 2004

Human appetite is regulated by a multi-level system including adiposity signals (leptin, insulin), gut peptides (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, ghrelin), and hypothalamic neuropeptides (NPY, AgRP, POMC), with GLP-1 and PYY identified as the most druggable targets..

Peripheral and central signals in the control of eating in normal, obese and binge-eating human subjects.

Hellström, Per M · 2004

Normal, obese, and binge-eating individuals show distinct patterns of appetite signal dysfunction across peripheral (gut peptides, adipokines) and central (hypothalamic neuropeptide) systems — disorder-specific signaling profiles enabling targeted treatment..

Brain-gut axis and its role in the control of food intake.

Konturek, S J · 2004

Food intake control operates through an integrated brain-gut axis where peripheral peptides (GLP-1, PYY, CCK, ghrelin, amylin) signal via vagal and hormonal routes to central circuits (NPY/AgRP, POMC/CART, CRF) for coordinated appetite regulation..

Gut peptides and other regulators in obesity.

Scharf, Matthew T · 2004

Gut peptide-based obesity drugs including GLP-1 agonists, PYY analogs, oxyntomodulin, and ghrelin antagonists represent the most promising peripheral anti-obesity targets, with GLP-1 showing the most advanced clinical development..

Biology of eating behavior in obesity.

Schwartz, Gary J · 2004

Eating behavior in obesity reflects disrupted multi-level peptide signaling: blunted gut satiety peptides (GLP-1, PYY, CCK), altered opioid reward processing, ghrelin dysregulation, and impaired central neuropeptide circuits — biology driving behavioral excess..

Gut hormones as peripheral anti obesity targets.

Small, Caroline J · 2004

Peripheral gut hormone-based obesity drug development focuses on GLP-1 agonists (most advanced), PYY analogs, oxyntomodulin, amylin analogs, and PP as practical anti-obesity drug targets with established physiological rationale and clinical precedent..

The gut and regulation of body weight.

Wynne, Katie · 2004

Gut hormones (GLP-1, PYY, ghrelin, CCK, oxyntomodulin) regulate body weight through coordinated appetite and energy expenditure signaling, with GLP-1 receptor agonists showing the most advanced clinical development for obesity treatment..

Gastric pacing for morbid obesity: plasma levels of gastrointestinal peptides and leptin.

Cigaina, Valerio · 2003

Gastric pacing in morbidly obese patients altered circulating CCK, somatostatin, and leptin levels, providing a neuroendocrine mechanism for the satiety and weight loss effects of this device..

Tirzepatide mitigates thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection by alleviating the loss of the contractile phenotype in vascular smooth muscle cells and reducing vascular inflammation.

Tan, Liao · 2026

Tirzepatide dramatically reduced the formation of thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection (TAAD) in mice — from 88.9% to 50.0% — and cut related deaths from 83.3% to 38.9%.

Fatty Pancreas: Its Potential as a Risk Factor for Pancreatic Cancer and Clinical Implications.

Otsuka, Nao · 2025

Fatty pancreas may be linked to increased risk of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma through chronic inflammation and lipotoxicity, and certain diabetes drugs might help..

GLP-1R Agonists Improve Ocular Surface Parameters in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Ottonelli, Giovanni · 2025

GLP-1 RA users had median Schirmer values of 15 mm vs.

The effects of the GLP1 analog liraglutide on allodynia and motor coordination in peripheral neuropathy induced by a chemotherapeutic agent, cisplatin.

Ozatik, Fikriye Yasemin · 2025

Liraglutide, especially at weekly dosing, reduced cisplatin-induced neuropathic pain, motor impairment, and nerve tissue damage in rats..

Osteogenic effects of metformin and exenatide on bone regeneration in non-diabetic rats: A Micro-CT and histological study.

Ozturk, Hasan · 2025

Metformin and exenatide significantly increased osteoblast and osteoclast numbers at bone defect sites (p=0.007 for both) without affecting overall bone volume..

GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Induced Eustachian Tube Dysfunction: Database and Systematic Review of Otolaryngologic Adverse Events.

Pak, Kaitlynne Y · 2025

GLP-1 receptor agonists were associated with eustachian tube dysfunction, particularly the patulous variant, likely caused by rapid loss of soft tissue bulk around the eustachian tube opening..

Dual-phase exenatide delivery system: PLGA nanoparticles embedded in thermosensitive PLGA-PEG-PLGA hydrogel for sustained glycemic control.

Pan, Shu · 2025

The biphasic delivery system (Ex-NPs-gel) provided both rapid initial and sustained long-term exenatide release, achieving prolonged glycemic control compared to standard exenatide injections in diabetic rats..

A comprehensive review on liraglutide and novel nanocarrier-based systems for the effective delivery of liraglutide.

Pandey, Ajay · 2025

Multiple nanocarrier platforms (polymeric, lipid-based, and hybrid systems) have demonstrated improved liraglutide stability, protection from degradation, and enhanced bioavailability in preclinical studies..

Med14 phosphorylation shapes genomic response to GLP-1 Agonist.

Van de Velde, Sam · 2025

Researchers discovered that GLP-1 receptor agonists (specifically Exendin-4) work on pancreatic beta cells through a previously unknown mechanism involving a protein called Med14.

Liraglutide alleviates sepsis-induced acute lung injury by regulating pulmonary surfactant through inhibiting autophagy.

Guo, Junping · 2024

Liraglutide, a GLP-1 receptor agonist, protected mice from sepsis-induced acute lung injury (ALI) by restoring pulmonary surfactant production and inhibiting excessive autophagy.

Semaglutide and smoking cessation in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus: there is no smoke without fire!

Popovic, Djordje S · 2024

Among people with type 2 diabetes, semaglutide was linked to a lower risk of medical encounters related to tobacco use disorder compared to other diabetes drug classes.

Diabetes drugs activate neuroprotective pathways in models of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy.

Poupon-Bejuit, Laura · 2024

Both exendin-4 and semaglutide improved outcomes when given right after brain injury in newborn mice.

Use of Dulaglutide, Semaglutide, and Tirzepatide in Diabetes and Weight Management.

Powell, Jason · 2024

Semaglutide outperformed dulaglutide in both HbA1c reduction and weight loss, making it the most sought-after GLP-1 drug.

Unlocking New Therapeutic Options for Vincristine-Induced Neuropathic Pain: The Impact of Preclinical Research.

Pușcașu, Ciprian · 2024

Among the novel agents studied in animal models, liraglutide showed neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects against vincristine-induced nerve damage.

Adipocyte inflammation is the primary driver of hepatic insulin resistance in a human iPSC-based microphysiological system.

Qi, Lin · 2024

The researchers created a microphysiological system (MPS), a tiny interconnected network of human fat cells, liver cells, and inflammatory immune cells (macrophages).

Glucagon-like Peptide 1 Receptor Agonists in Cardio-Oncology: Pathophysiology of Cardiometabolic Outcomes in Cancer Patients.

Quagliariello, Vincenzo · 2024

Cancer patients face elevated cardiovascular risk from both the cancer itself and cardiotoxic treatments.

Effectiveness and safety of a GLP-1 agonist in obese patients with inflammatory bowel disease.

Ramos Belinchón, Clara · 2024

Sixteen obese patients with IBD (9 Crohn's disease, 7 ulcerative colitis) received semaglutide 1.0 mg or liraglutide 3.0 mg for obesity.

Effect of GLP-1 Receptor Agonist on Ischemia Reperfusion Injury in Rats with Metabolic Syndrome.

Ravic, Marko · 2024

After 6 weeks of treatment in rats with metabolic syndrome: - Exenatide improved ejection fraction by 3% vs untreated MetS group - Dulaglutide improved ejection fraction by 7% vs untreated MetS group - Histology showed reduced cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area: 11% reduction with exenatide, 18% with dulaglutide - Both drugs reduced oxidative stress biomarkers - Dulaglutide showed a slight advantage overall.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT2i) plus glucagon-like peptide type 1 receptor combination is more effective than SGLT2i plus dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor combination in treating obese mice metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD).

Reis-Barbosa, Pedro H · 2024

High-fat diet versus control: liver triglycerides increased 82%, steatosis increased 850%, glucose intolerance increased 71%, insulin increased 98%, and insulin resistance increased 68%. Both drug combinations improved all parameters compared to untreated obese mice: - Empagliflozin + linagliptin: glucose intolerance -60%, insulin -61%, insulin resistance -46%, TAG -61%, steatosis -58% - Empagliflozin + dulaglutide: glucose intolerance -71%, insulin -58%, insulin resistance -62%, TAG -61%, steatosis -82% Principal component analysis clearly separated the groups: the GLP-1 combination was furthest from the disease group, while the DPP-4 combination fell between control and the GLP-1 group..

A GLP-1/GIP Dual Receptor Agonist DA4-JC Effectively Attenuates Cognitive Impairment and Pathology in the APP/PS1/Tau Model of Alzheimer's Disease.

Cai, Hong-Yan · 2021

DA4-JC improved cognition, enhanced hippocampal synaptic function, normalized mitochondria via PINK1-Parkin pathway, and reduced both amyloid and p-tau pathology in APP/PS1/Tau transgenic mice..

Benefits of Sustained Upregulated Unimolecular GLP-1 and CCK Receptor Signalling in Obesity-Diabetes.

Tanday, Neil · 2021

The hybrid peptide [Lys12Pal]Ex-4/CCK demonstrated prominent insulin-releasing (insulinotropic) actions in laboratory cell tests.

Acute Exenatide Therapy Attenuates Postprandial Vasodilation in Humans with Prediabetes: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Hamidi, Vala · 2020

Exenatide significantly attenuated resting forearm blood flow (FBF) at 3 hours after the meal (P = 0.003) and showed a trend at 6 hours (P = 0.056) compared to placebo.

Hydrophobic ion pairing of a GLP-1 analogue for incorporating into lipid nanocarriers designed for oral delivery.

Ismail, Ruba · 2020

Exenatide is a peptide drug given by injection because it is destroyed in the gut and cannot cross the intestinal wall.

Signalling, trafficking and glucoregulatory properties of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists exendin-4 and lixisenatide.

Pickford, Philip · 2020

Lixisenatide showed 5-fold lower cAMP signaling potency than exendin-4 despite equal binding affinity, with slower GLP-1 receptor recycling.

Milk whey from different animal species stimulates the in vitro release of CCK and GLP-1 through a whole simulated intestinal digestion.

Sánchez-Moya, T · 2020

Digested whey samples were the most potent CCK and GLP-1 stimulators.

High fat diet and GLP-1 drugs induce pancreatic injury in mice.

Rouse, Rodney · 2014

Both GLP-1 drugs tested — exenatide (a GLP-1 receptor agonist) and sitagliptin (a DPP-4 inhibitor) — caused significant pancreatic injury in mice compared to controls.

Emerging Role of Myostatin Inhibitors in the Management of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1-Associated Sarcopenia and Metabolic Disorders.

Baik, Jongmin · 2025

GLP-1 analogs cause significant muscle loss as a side effect of appetite suppression and reduced nutritional intake, creating a clinical problem for long-term weight management.

GLP-1 single, dual, and triple receptor agonists for treating type 2 diabetes and obesity: a narrative review.

Alfaris, Nasreen · 2024

GLP-1 receptor agonists have evolved from single-target drugs into dual and triple receptor agonists that represent the cutting edge of metabolic therapy.

Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Analogues as Adjunctive Therapy for Patients With Type 1 Diabetes: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Park, Jeayoung · 2023

This meta-analysis of 24 randomized controlled trials (3,377 patients) found that GLP-1 analogs — particularly liraglutide — provide meaningful benefits when added to insulin therapy in type 1 diabetes.

Insights into a possible role of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in the treatment of depression.

Detka, Jan · 2021

GLP-1 receptor agonists demonstrate potential antidepressant effects through multiple mechanisms: neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory action, stress response modulation, brain energy metabolism improvement, and gut-brain axis stabilization..

Strategies for the delivery of antidiabetic drugs via intranasal route.

Dholakia, Jheel · 2021

Intranasal delivery of insulin and glucagon-like peptides demonstrates improved therapeutic levels and patient compliance, with drugs transported through epithelial tight junctions via the paracellular route..

Comparative efficacy of 5 sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor and 7 glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists interventions on cardiorenal outcomes in type 2 diabetes patients: A network meta-analysis based on cardiovascular or renal outcome trials.

Duan, Xue-Yan · 2021

Sotagliflozin ranked first for MACE (HR 0.76), heart failure hospitalization (HR 0.59), MI (HR 0.65), and stroke (HR 0.56).

Efficacy and safety of novel twincretin tirzepatide a dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist in the management of type-2 diabetes: A Cochrane meta-analysis.

Dutta, Deep · 2021

Tirzepatide reduced HbA1c by an additional 0.75%, weight by 8.63 kg, BMI by 1.80 kg/m², and waist circumference by 4.43 cm versus active comparators.

Accentuated early postprandial satiety in people with spinal cord injury versus able-bodied controls.

Fenton, Jordan M · 2021

SCI patients showed higher early postprandial fullness (d=0.83) and satisfaction (d=0.87), ate less at ad libitum meals (1,086 vs 1,713 kJ, d=1.00, p=0.020), but had no significant differences in GLP-1, PYY, or acylated ghrelin responses..

Treating cognitive impairment in schizophrenia with GLP-1RAs: an overview of their therapeutic potential.

Flintoff, Jonathan · 2021

Preclinical evidence supports GLP-1 receptor agonists as potential cognitive enhancers, with activity in brain regions involved in learning and memory, though clinical evidence in schizophrenia is still needed..

The therapeutic potential of GLP-1 analogues for stress-related eating and role of GLP-1 in stress, emotion and mood: a review.

Guerrero-Hreins, Eva · 2021

Acute GLP-1 injection consistently stimulates the physiological stress response in rodents (increased stress hormones).

Impact of dietary intake of resistant starch on obesity and associated metabolic profiles in human: a systematic review of the literature.

Guo, Jiayue · 2021

RS intake significantly improved GLP-1 and PYY gut hormone levels, improved blood glucose (5/8 studies) and insulin sensitivity (2/3 studies).

Effect of combined therapy of mesenchymal stem cells with GLP-1 receptor agonist, exenatide, on early-onset nephropathy induced in diabetic rats.

Habib, Heba A · 2021

Combined ADMSC + exenatide therapy showed superior renoprotective effects versus ADMSCs alone in diabetic rats, with significant improvement in kidney function and reduced inflammatory, fibrotic, and apoptotic markers..

Identification and Metabolic Profiling of a Novel Human Gut-derived LEAP2 Fragment.

Hagemann, Christoffer A · 2021

RYGB upregulated LEAP2 expression.

Appetite and Energy Intake Regulation in Response to Acute Exercise.

Halliday, Tanya M · 2021

Resistance exercise reduced ghrelin (p=0.006), PYY (p=0.001), and GLP-1 (p=0.013) AUC versus aerobic exercise.

Management of post-transplant diabetes: immunosuppression, early prevention, and novel antidiabetics.

Hecking, Manfred · 2021

Retrospective data suggest GLP-1RAs are safe in PTDM with no major concerns, particularly suitable for obese transplant recipients.

Durability of Linear Small-Intestinal Growth Following Treatment Discontinuation of Long-Acting Glucagon-Like Peptide 2 (GLP-2) Analogues.

Hinchliffe, Tierah · 2021

GLP-2 analogues increased intestinal length by day 7 (p=0.005), maintained (teduglutide) or further increased (apraglutide) at day 14 after cessation (p<0.001).

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist relieved asthmatic airway inflammation via suppression of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in obese asthma mice model.

Hur, Jung · 2021

GLP-1R agonist induced weight loss, suppressed eosinophilic inflammation, reduced AHR, decreased IL-4/5/33, and inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation (reduced NLRP3, caspase-1, IL-1β) in lung tissues of obese asthmatic mice..

Role of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Receptor Agonists in Hypoglycemia.

Ja'arah, Daria · 2021

GLP-1 receptor agonists were proposed to cause hypoglycemia in healthy normoglycemic subjects, challenging the assumption of purely glucose-dependent action.

Glucagon-like peptide-1, a matter of taste?

Jensterle, Mojca · 2021

The review establishes several key connections between GLP-1 and taste: 1.

Emerging glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists for the treatment of obesity.

Jepsen, Mathies M · 2021

15+ GLP-1-based compounds in clinical obesity development: mono-GLP-1 (semaglutide, PF-0688296, glutazumab), dual (tirzepatide, cotadutide, efinopegdutide, AMG 133), and multi-receptor (CagriSema, HM15211).

A synthetic peptide AWRK6 ameliorates metabolic associated fatty liver disease: involvement of lipid and glucose homeostasis.

Jin, Lili · 2021

AWRK6 (novel GLP-1R agonist from frog AMP) alleviated obesity and hepatic steatosis in HED-induced MAFLD mice, improved lipid and glucose metabolism, and activated PI3K/AKT/AMPK/ACC signaling.

Proglucagon-Derived Peptides as Therapeutics.

Lafferty, Ryan A · 2021

Proglucagon-derived peptide family includes glucagon, GLP-1, GLP-2, oxyntomodulin, glicentin, and GRPP.

The Effects of a Weight-Loss Herbal Formula RCM-107 and Its Eight Individual Ingredients on Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion-An In Vitro and In Silico Study.

Luo, Shiqi · 2020

Gardeniae fructus induced significantly greater GLP-1 secretion than EGCG; molecular docking identified 3-epioleanolic acid and crocin as potential GLP-1 receptor agonists..

Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on major cardiovascular events in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus with or without established cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

Marsico, Fabio · 2020

GLP-1 receptor agonists reduced 3-point MACE by 12% (HR 0.88), stroke by 16%, CV death by 12%, all-cause mortality by 11%, and HF hospitalization by 8% across 56,004 patients — with no significant difference between those with or without established CVD..

Clinical Evidence and Mechanisms of High-Protein Diet-Induced Weight Loss.

Moon, Jaecheol · 2020

High-protein diets increase anorexigenic gut peptides (GLP-1, CCK, PYY) and decrease ghrelin, combined with higher diet-induced thermogenesis and muscle preservation, producing sustained weight loss in clinical trials..

GLP-1 receptor agonists for Parkinson's disease.

Mulvaney, Caroline A · 2020

Exenatide improved MDS-UPDRS Part III motor scores by 3.1-5.6 points versus controls, with effects persisting after drug cessation, but evidence certainty remains low..

Short-term intestinal lipase inhibition in normal-weight individuals does not affect postprandial peptide YY3-36 and glucagon-like peptide-1 levels, hunger or satiety.

Nguyen, Nga N · 2020

Short-term orlistat-induced fat malabsorption did not increase postprandial GLP-1 or PYY3-36 levels or affect hunger/satiety in normal-weight individuals..

Major cardiovascular events, heart failure, and atrial fibrillation in patients treated with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists: An updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

Nreu, Besmir · 2020

GLP-1 RAs significantly reduced MACE (OR 0.87), all-cause mortality (OR 0.89), and showed a trend toward heart failure reduction (OR 0.93) without increasing atrial fibrillation risk across 43 trials..

Biology of incretins: GLP-1 and GIP.

Baggio, Laurie L · 2007

GLP-1 and GIP are both released within minutes of eating and help the body process nutrients by stimulating insulin release from pancreatic beta cells.